SPEAK SERBIAN FLUENTLY

MASTER SERBIAN GRAMMAR

We made Serbian grammar easy to learn! This Grammar Section is designed to help you understand the essential rules as quickly as possible, so you can begin forming your own sentences from day one. Unlike other courses that overwhelm you with theory, our approach focuses on the most important rules that will allow you to speak Serbian confidently and naturally — starting today.

In the lessons ahead, you’ll find everything you need to master Serbian grammar. Each topic is explained with practical, easy-to-understand examples to help you not only learn the rules but also remember and apply them. We recommend learning the core 2000 Serbian Vocabulary words first — this will make the examples much easier to follow and understand.

The grammar topics covered include the Serbian alphabet, nouns, pronouns, conjunctions and prepositions. You’ll also dive into adverbs, adjectives, present, past and future tenses, as well as the imperative, modal verbs, negation, sentence structure, questions, and relative clauses.

Click on any section title to jump directly to the topic you're interested in, or start from the beginning and let your knowledge grow naturally.

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SERBIAN ALPHABET

The Serbian alphabet is one of the most distinctive features of the language. Serbian uses two alphabets—Cyrillic (ћирилица) and Latin (latinica)—both of which are official and used interchangeably in everyday life. Unlike many languages where one alphabet is dominant, Serbian treats both scripts as equal. Every sound in Serbian corresponds to exactly one letter, and every letter represents only one sound. This perfect one-to-one relationship makes reading and writing straightforward once the alphabet is learned.

Serbian’s Cyrillic script was standardized by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, the great 19th-century language reformer, whose principle was simple and revolutionary: “Piši kao što govoriš, čitaj kao što je napisano” – Write as you speak, read as it is written. This phonetic rule remains at the heart of Serbian orthography.

The Two Alphabets

Modern Serbian can be written using either Cyrillic or Latin. Both are phonetic, meaning that the pronunciation is identical regardless of which alphabet is used. For example:

Београд = Beograd = Belgrade
Љубав = Ljubav = Love
Језик = Jezik = Language

Serbian Cyrillic is based on the Russian Cyrillic alphabet but with several unique letters and simplifications that make it better suited to Serbian sounds. The Latin alphabet used in Serbian is a modified form of the standard Latin script, similar to the one used in Croatian and Bosnian.

Cyrillic is the traditional script, used officially by the government, in schools, and in most printed literature. The Latin alphabet, however, is very common in everyday use—especially online, in advertising, and in popular media. Every educated Serbian can read and write fluently in both.

Phonetic Principle

Serbian spelling is completely phonetic, unlike English or French. Each letter represents one sound, and there are no silent letters or irregular pronunciations. Once you know the alphabet, you can pronounce any Serbian word correctly, even without hearing it first.

For example:
Мајка / Majka mother
Књига / Knjiga book
Рука / Ruka hand
Срце / Srce heart

This phonetic precision makes Serbian one of the most consistent languages to read and write.

The Cyrillic Alphabet

Serbian Cyrillic consists of 30 letters. It was designed to represent each sound of the language perfectly, with no digraphs (no combinations like “sh” or “ch”).

Cyrillic letters such as љ, њ, and џ correspond to single sounds that are written in two letters in Latin (lj, nj, dž).

A few examples:
Људи people
Њива field
Џем jam
Чај tea
Жена woman
Шума forest

Each letter has a fixed sound, regardless of its position in the word. For instance, ш is always pronounced like sh in shoe, and ц always sounds like ts in cats.

The Latin Alphabet

The Serbian Latin alphabet also has 30 letters, corresponding exactly to the Cyrillic ones. Every Cyrillic letter has a Latin equivalent, and switching between the two is purely mechanical—there is no change in pronunciation.

Some of its letters include diacritical marks such as č, ć, š, ž, and đ, which represent sounds specific to Serbian.

Examples:
Čovek man
Ćerka daughter
Škola school
Život life
Đak pupil

These letters are essential because they distinguish meanings that would otherwise be confused. For example:
celo whole
čelo forehead
ćelo bald

Each diacritic changes the sound completely, so attention to detail is important when writing in Latin script.

Letters and Sounds

Serbian has 30 distinct phonemes—five vowels and twenty-five consonants—and thus 30 letters in both scripts. This phonetic match eliminates ambiguity.

The vowels are: a, e, i, o, u, pronounced clearly and consistently. Each vowel corresponds to one syllable.
Examples:
Мама mom
Село village
Риба fish
Писмо letter
Кућа house

The consonants are pronounced exactly as written. Every sound is articulated cleanly, without blending or silent letters.

Some pairs might seem similar to English sounds but differ slightly in articulation:

• č is a hard ch as in church.

• ć is a softer version of ch, pronounced with the tongue closer to the teeth.

• š is sh as in shoe.

• ž is zh as in measure.

• đ sounds like the j in juice.

• lj and nj are single sounds, similar to the Italian gli and gn.

Examples in use:
Čeka waits
Ćao hi
Šuma forest
Žaba frog
Đak pupil
Ljubav love
Njiva field

Vuk Karadžić’s Reform

The modern Serbian alphabet is the result of the 19th-century linguistic reform led by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić. Before his reform, Serbian used an older, more complex Church Slavonic script that did not accurately represent the spoken language.

Vuk’s goal was simplicity and accessibility. He reduced the number of letters, removed unnecessary symbols, and introduced new ones to represent specific Serbian sounds. His guiding principle, write as you speak, became the foundation of modern Serbian literacy.

Because of his efforts, Serbian is one of the few languages where native speakers never struggle with spelling once they learn the alphabet.

Digraphs in Latin Script

While Cyrillic uses single letters for every sound, the Latin alphabet employs digraphs—two-letter combinations—for a few Serbian sounds: nj, lj, and dž.

These are considered single letters in the Serbian Latin alphabet and are alphabetized as such.

Njegov his
Ljubav love
Džep pocket

Despite being written with two characters, each digraph represents one phoneme and is pronounced as one smooth sound.

Capitalization Rules

Capitalization in Serbian follows the same rules in both alphabets. Only the first word of a sentence and proper nouns are capitalized. Titles and names of institutions capitalize only the first word, unless other words are proper names.

Beograd je glavni grad Srbije. Belgrade is the capital city of Serbia.
Srpski jezik Serbian language
Narodna biblioteka Srbije National Library of Serbia

Unlike in English, adjectives derived from proper nouns are not capitalized:
srpski jezik, the Serbian language (not “Serbian Language”).

Alphabet Order and Usage

Both alphabets follow the same order of letters, and every Serbian word can be perfectly transliterated from one alphabet to the other. For instance:

Љубав → Ljubav
Дете → Dete
Река → Reka
Живот → Život

Cyrillic is used officially by the Serbian government, public institutions, and the Orthodox Church, while the Latin alphabet dominates in advertising, online communication, and international contexts. Most Serbians read and write in both without any difficulty, switching naturally depending on context.

Pronunciation Consistency

The beauty of the Serbian alphabet lies in its phonetic consistency. Every sound corresponds to one letter—there are no exceptions or irregularities.

Consider the word путовање / putovanje travel:
Each letter represents a clear sound:
p-u-t-o-v-a-n-j-e → seven syllables, pronounced exactly as written.

This makes Serbian pronunciation remarkably predictable and easy to learn for anyone once the alphabet is mastered.

Foreign Letters and Loanwords

When foreign words enter Serbian, they are either adapted to fit Serbian phonetics or kept in their original Latin form depending on context.

For example:
Televizija television
Kompjuter computer
Hamburger hamburger
Internet internet

Names and international brands are usually written in the Latin alphabet without adaptation:
Facebook, Google, Apple, McDonald’s.

When written in Cyrillic, however, they are phonetically transcribed:
Фејсбук, Гугл, Епл, Мекдоналдс.

SERBIAN NOUNS

In Serbian, nouns are fundamental building blocks of the language. They are words that name people, animals, objects, places, ideas, and emotions. Understanding how nouns function in Serbian is essential because they change their form depending on gender, number, and grammatical case. Serbian is a highly inflected language, meaning that the endings of nouns vary to indicate their grammatical role in a sentence.

Gender of Nouns

Every Serbian noun belongs to one of three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter. Gender is not always determined by natural sex—it is a grammatical category that affects how words agree with adjectives, pronouns, and verbs.

Masculine nouns typically end in a consonant: grad city, sto table, sin son. Feminine nouns usually end in -a: žena woman, škola school, ruka hand. Neuter nouns most often end in -o or -e: more sea, selo village, ime name.

Gender plays an important role in determining the form of adjectives and past tense verbs that describe or refer to the noun. For example:
Lep grad beautiful city
Lepa žena beautiful woman
Lepo selo beautiful village

Number

Serbian nouns have two numbers: singular and plural. The plural form is created by adding specific endings that depend on the noun’s gender and ending in the singular. Masculine nouns often form the plural by adding -i: sto – stolovi table – tables. Feminine nouns usually take -e: žena – žene woman – women. Neuter nouns typically use -a: selo – sela village – villages.

Certain nouns also undergo changes within the word stem when forming the plural. For instance, čovek man becomes ljudi people, and dete child becomes deca children.

Definiteness and Indefiniteness

Unlike English, Serbian does not have articles such as a, an, or the. Instead, the definiteness of a noun—whether it refers to something specific or general—is inferred from context or word order. For example:
Kupio sam knjigu. I bought a book.
Knjiga je zanimljiva. The book is interesting.

Here, knjiga book has no article, but the meaning is clear from its position in the sentence.

Animate and Inanimate Nouns

In Serbian, masculine nouns are also classified as animate or inanimate, which affects their form in certain grammatical cases, especially in the accusative. Animate nouns refer to living beings, while inanimate nouns refer to objects or abstract concepts.

Vidim čoveka. I see the man.
Vidim sto. I see the table.

Both čovek and sto are masculine, but the animate noun čovek changes to čoveka in the accusative, whereas the inanimate sto remains unchanged.

Derivation of Nouns

Serbian nouns are often formed from verbs, adjectives, or other nouns using prefixes and suffixes. This system of derivation is productive and helps expand the vocabulary. For example:
From the verb pisati to write comes pisac writer.
From the adjective lep beautiful comes lepota beauty.
From the noun škola school comes učenik student.

Suffixes such as -ac, -ka, -stvo, and -ost are common in forming new nouns.

Diminutives and Augmentatives

Serbian uses diminutive and augmentative forms to express smallness, affection, or largeness and intensity. These are made by adding suffixes to the base noun.

Kuća house → kućica little house
Pas dog → psić little dog
Čovek man → čovečina big man, giant

Diminutives often carry emotional coloring and are common in everyday speech, especially when addressing children or loved ones.

Gender Agreement

Since Serbian is a gendered language, all accompanying words such as adjectives, pronouns, and numerals must agree with the noun in gender, number, and case. This agreement creates harmony in the sentence and is an essential part of grammatical accuracy.

Mali pas small dog
Mala mačka small cat
Malo dete small child

Here, the adjective mali/mala/malo changes its form to match the gender of the noun.

Compound Nouns

Compound nouns are formed by joining two words together to express a single concept. They are common in Serbian and often describe professions, objects, or natural phenomena.

Vodopad waterfall (from voda water + pad fall)
Autobus bus (from Greek and Latin roots meaning auto + bus)
Sunčobran sunshade (from sunce sun + braniti to protect)

Borrowed and Native Nouns

Serbian vocabulary includes both native Slavic nouns and many loanwords from Turkish, German, Hungarian, and English. For example:
Prozor window (Slavic origin)
Jorgan blanket (Turkish origin)
Šunka ham (German origin)
Kompjuter computer (English origin)

These loanwords are fully integrated into Serbian grammar and follow the same rules of gender, number, and case.

Role in Sentences

Nouns can function as subjects, objects, or complements in a sentence. Their grammatical case shows their syntactic role. For instance:
Dečak čita knjigu. The boy reads a book.
Here, dečak boy is the subject, and knjigu book is the object.

Because of the case system, word order in Serbian can be flexible:
Knjigu čita dečak. The boy is reading the book.
The meaning remains the same, though emphasis may shift.

CASES IN SERBIAN

One of the most defining features of Serbian grammar is its system of cases. A case is a grammatical category that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in the sentence. Instead of using many prepositions like in English, Serbian expresses meaning through changes in the endings of words. These endings indicate who is doing something, to whom or what it is being done, where something happens, or possession.

Serbian has seven grammatical cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, and locative. Each noun, adjective, and pronoun changes its form depending on its role in the sentence. This process is known as declension.

Understanding the logic of the cases is essential to mastering Serbian because word endings—not word order—define the meaning. Let’s explore each case in detail.

Nominative Case

The nominative is the basic form of the noun—the one you find in dictionaries. It answers the question who? or what? and is used primarily for the subject of a sentence.

Dečak čita knjigu. The boy reads a book.
Pas spava. The dog is sleeping.
Beograd je veliki grad. Belgrade is a big city.

The nominative tells us who or what performs the action of the verb.

Genitive Case

The genitive case expresses possession, origin, and certain quantitative or descriptive relationships. It often translates to English with of or the possessive ’s. It answers the questions whose? and of what?

Kuća mog prijatelja. The house of my friend.
Boja neba. The color of the sky.
Nema mleka. There is no milk.

The genitive is also used after certain prepositions such as bez without, od from, iz out of, and pored next to. For example:
Bez šećera. Without sugar.
Daleko od grada. Far from the city.

Dative Case

The dative case shows the indirect object of the action—the person to whom something is given, said, or shown. It answers the questions to whom? or for whom?

Dao sam knjigu Mariji. I gave the book to Marija.
Pišem pismo prijatelju. I am writing a letter to my friend.
Kupila je poklon detetu. She bought a gift for the child.

The dative is often used after verbs that involve giving or communicating and after prepositions such as ka toward and prema toward/according to.

Accusative Case

The accusative marks the direct object of a verb—the person or thing directly affected by the action. It answers the questions whom? or what?

Vidim devojku. I see the girl.
On jede hleb. He eats bread.
Kupujemo auto. We are buying a car.

For inanimate masculine nouns, the accusative has the same form as the nominative, but for animate masculine nouns (people or animals), the form often matches the genitive. Compare:
Vidim sto. I see the table.
Vidim čoveka. I see the man.

The accusative is also used after certain prepositions to indicate motion toward something, such as u into, na onto, and kroz through:
Idem u školu. I am going to school.
Penjem se na planinu. I am climbing the mountain.

Vocative Case

The vocative is the case of address and direct calling. It is used when speaking to someone or calling someone by name. It answers no specific question but signals that the speaker is addressing someone directly.

Marko, dođi ovamo! Marko, come here!
Dragi prijatelju, kako si? Dear friend, how are you?
Mama, gde si? Mom, where are you?

In writing and speech, the vocative often carries emotional tone or familiarity. In formal situations, people may use the nominative instead of the vocative to sound more polite or distant.

Instrumental Case

The instrumental case expresses means or accompaniment—how or with whom something is done. It answers the questions with whom? or with what?

Putujem vozom. I am traveling by train.
Pišem olovkom. I write with a pencil.
Šetam sa prijateljem. I am walking with a friend.

It is used after the prepositions sa/s with and među among, as well as to describe instruments, tools, or manners.

Letimo avionom. We are flying by plane.
Ponosim se svojim sinom. I am proud of my son.

Locative Case

The locative is used to indicate location or place, answering the questions where? or in/at/on what place? It appears only after certain prepositions such as u in, na on/at, and o about.

U gradu. In the city.
Na stolu. On the table.
Pričamo o filmu. We are talking about the film.

Although its form often coincides with the dative, its meaning is entirely spatial or contextual, not directional.

Case Usage and Word Order

Because Serbian relies on cases rather than fixed word order, sentences can often be rearranged for emphasis without changing the meaning.

Dečak vidi psa. The boy sees the dog.
Psa vidi dečak. The boy sees the dog.
Vidi dečak psa. The boy sees the dog.

The different word orders place emphasis on different parts of the sentence, but thanks to the accusative ending -a, we always know that pas dog is the object.

Prepositions and Cases

Prepositions in Serbian require specific cases, and learning which case follows which preposition is essential. Some prepositions always take one case, while others change meaning depending on whether they take the accusative or locative.

U školu to school (motion toward – accusative)
U školi in school (location – locative)

Na sto onto the table (motion – accusative)
Na stolu on the table (position – locative)

This alternation between motion and rest is central to understanding prepositional usage in Serbian.

SERBIAN ADJECTIVES

Adjectives in Serbian are words that describe or qualify nouns. They express qualities such as color, size, shape, feeling, or other characteristics. Just like nouns, adjectives in Serbian are inflected, meaning that they change their form depending on the gender, number, and case of the noun they describe. This agreement between adjectives and nouns is a key feature of Serbian grammar and contributes to the language’s harmony and precision.

Adjectives are used very frequently in speech and writing and can appear before or after the noun. Understanding how they work is essential for speaking and writing Serbian correctly.

Agreement with Nouns

In Serbian, adjectives must always agree with the noun they modify in gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter), number (singular or plural), and case (one of the seven cases). This means that the ending of the adjective changes to match the noun.

Lep grad beautiful city
Lepa kuća beautiful house
Lepo selo beautiful village

Here, the adjective lep beautiful changes its ending: -a for feminine and -o for neuter. The masculine form is considered the base form.

When the nouns are in the plural, the adjective changes as well:
Lepi gradovi beautiful cities
Lepe kuće beautiful houses
Lepa sela beautiful villages

This system of agreement ensures that every part of the sentence connects grammatically and semantically.

Position in the Sentence

Adjectives most commonly appear before the noun they modify, but they can also follow it for stylistic or poetic reasons.

Velika soba a big room
Soba je velika. The room is big.

When placed after the noun, the adjective is part of a predicate and usually follows the verb biti to be.

Devojka je lepa. The girl is beautiful.
Auto je brz. The car is fast.

In written and poetic Serbian, adjectives can occasionally appear after nouns for emphasis or rhythm, but in everyday speech, the adjective usually precedes the noun.

Short and Long Forms of Adjectives

Serbian adjectives can have two forms: a short form and a long form. The long form is more common in modern usage, while the short form is limited to specific stylistic or grammatical contexts.

The long form of an adjective is used in most situations, particularly when describing a noun in a general or definite sense:
Dobar čovek a good man
Pametna devojka a smart girl
Novo selo a new village

The short form, which often lacks the final -i, appears mainly in certain set expressions or when forming the predicate of a sentence in older or literary styles:
On je dobar. He is good.
Ona je pametna. She is smart.

In practice, learners should focus on mastering the long form first, as it is the standard form used in contemporary spoken and written Serbian.

Degrees of Comparison

Like English, Serbian adjectives can express degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.

The positive degree expresses a simple quality:
Ovaj kolač je sladak. This cake is sweet.

The comparative degree expresses a higher degree of that quality and is usually formed by adding the suffix -iji (or -ji for certain stems):
Ovaj kolač je slađi. This cake is sweeter.

The superlative degree expresses the highest degree and is formed by adding the prefix naj- to the comparative form:
Ovaj kolač je najslađi. This cake is the sweetest.

Some adjectives have irregular comparative forms, such as dobar – bolji – najbolji good – better – best, and loš – gori – najgori bad – worse – worst.

Forming Adjectives

Adjectives in Serbian can be formed from nouns or verbs using suffixes. This process helps create descriptive words that expand vocabulary and express relationships or characteristics.

From nouns:
Beograd – beogradski Belgrade – from Belgrade / Belgrade-related
Priroda – prirodan nature – natural

From verbs:
Videti – vidljiv to see – visible
Čuti – čujan to hear – audible

The suffixes -ski, -ni, -an, and -av are among the most common for forming adjectives.

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives show ownership or relationship and correspond to English forms like my, your, his, her, its, our, and their, but they also exist as derivations from nouns, similar to John’s or mother’s in English.

Personal possessive adjectives are: moj, tvoj, njegov, njen, naš, vaš, njihov.

Moj pas spava. My dog is sleeping.
Njena knjiga je zanimljiva. Her book is interesting.

Possessive adjectives derived from proper nouns are formed with suffixes:
Petar – Petrov Peter – Peter’s
Ana – Anin Ana – Ana’s

For example:
Petrov brat je lekar. Peter’s brother is a doctor.
Anina torba je nova. Ana’s bag is new.

Adjectives and Cases

Since adjectives agree with nouns, they change their endings in all seven grammatical cases. This means that an adjective not only reflects the gender and number of the noun but also its syntactic role in the sentence.

Vidim lepog psa. I see a beautiful dog.
Šetam sa lepim psom. I walk with a beautiful dog.
Pričam o lepom psu. I am talking about a beautiful dog.

In these examples, the adjective lep beautiful changes its ending to match the case of pas dog.

Adjectives as Nouns

In Serbian, adjectives can sometimes stand alone and function as nouns. This happens when the noun they describe is implied or understood from context.

Bogati pomažu siromašnima. The rich help the poor.
Mladi vole muziku. Young people love music.

Here, bogati and mladi act as nouns even though they are grammatically adjectives.

Negation of Adjectives

Negation of adjectives is simple and is formed by placing ne before the adjective:
Lep – nelep, beautiful – not beautiful
Pametan – nepametan, smart – not smart

In practice, Serbian often uses synonyms or more natural negative adjectives instead of direct negation:
Nepametan foolish instead of not smart,
Neprijatan unpleasant instead of not pleasant.

Usage in Comparisons

When comparing two things, Serbian uses the conjunction od than after a comparative adjective:
Ovaj auto je brži od onog. This car is faster than that one.
Ona je starija od sestre. She is older than her sister.

For superlatives, the article-like particle najviše the most can be added to emphasize intensity:
On je najviše talentovan. He is the most talented.

Adjective Word Families

Many adjectives form part of word families that include nouns, verbs, and adverbs derived from the same root. Recognizing these connections helps learners expand vocabulary systematically.

From lep beautiful: lepota beauty, ulepšati to beautify, lepo beautifully.
From pametan smart: pamet intelligence, upamtiti to remember, pametno wisely.

This rich interconnection of word families makes Serbian particularly expressive.

PRONOUNS IN SERBIAN

Pronouns in Serbian, known as zamenice, are words that replace nouns to avoid repetition or to make speech and writing smoother. They play an essential role in everyday communication, standing in for people, objects, or concepts that have already been mentioned or are understood from context. Pronouns agree with the nouns they replace in gender, number, and case, which means that their endings change according to their grammatical function in a sentence.

Serbian has a rich and flexible pronoun system that reflects its highly inflected nature. The main types of pronouns are personal, reflexive, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, and indefinite pronouns. Each type carries specific functions and nuances that are important for mastering natural Serbian expression.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns refer directly to the people or things involved in the conversation—those speaking, those spoken to, or those spoken about. Serbian personal pronouns have different forms depending on person (first, second, or third), number (singular or plural), and case.

The basic nominative (subject) forms are:
ja I
ti you (singular, informal)
on he
ona she
ono it
mi we
vi you (plural or formal)
oni they (masculine)
one they (feminine)
ona they (neuter)

Examples:
Ja sam student. I am a student.
Ti si moj prijatelj. You are my friend.
On radi u Beogradu. He works in Belgrade.
Mi živimo u Novom Sadu. We live in Novi Sad.
Oni dolaze sutra. They are coming tomorrow.

In Serbian, the personal pronoun is often omitted because the verb endings already indicate the subject.
Radim u školi. I work in a school.
Idemo kući. We are going home.
The pronoun is only added for emphasis:
Ja radim, a ti se odmaraš. I work, and you rest.

Object Forms of Personal Pronouns

When pronouns are used as objects (direct or indirect), they take different case forms. Serbian distinguishes between the accusative (direct object) and dative (indirect object).

Vidim te. I see you.
On me voli. He loves me.
Dajem mu knjigu. I’m giving him the book.
Zvala sam je. I called her.

These short, unstressed pronouns are known as clitics. They always appear in the second position in a sentence or clause, immediately after the first stressed word.

Ja te volim. I love you.
Sutra ću ti reći. Tomorrow I’ll tell you.
On mi je dao poklon. He gave me a gift.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence, indicating that the action is performed on oneself. The main reflexive pronoun in Serbian is se, which corresponds to oneself, himself, herself, itself, or themselves in English.

On se smeje. He is laughing (at himself).
Ona se umiva. She is washing herself.
Mi se poznajemo. We know each other.
Oni se plaše. They are afraid.

The reflexive pronoun se does not change for gender, number, or case—it stays the same in all contexts.

Another reflexive form is sebe, used in other cases:
Volim sebe. I love myself.
Brinem o sebi. I take care of myself.
Pričam sebi. I’m talking to myself.

Reflexive pronouns are also used to form reflexive verbs, a very common feature in Serbian.
Smejati se to laugh, kupati se to bathe, setiti se to remember, nadati se to hope.

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns indicate ownership or relationship. They agree in gender, number, and case with the noun they modify, not with the person who possesses it.

The basic forms are:
moj my
tvoj your (singular)
njegov his
njen her
naš our
vaš your (plural)
njihov their

Examples:
Moj brat radi u školi. My brother works at school.
Tvoja sestra je lepa. Your sister is beautiful.
Njegova kuća je stara. His house is old.
Naši prijatelji su u gradu. Our friends are in the city.

The possessive pronoun changes its ending to match the noun:
moj auto, my car (masculine)
moja knjiga, my book (feminine)
moje dete, my child (neuter)

Possessive pronouns can also stand alone, replacing the noun when it is clear from context:
Ovo je moj. This is mine.
Tvoje je lepše. Yours is prettier.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point to specific people or things, showing whether they are near or far in relation to the speaker. Serbian has three main sets: ovaj (this), taj (that, near the listener), and onaj (that, far from both speaker and listener).

Ovaj refers to something close to the speaker:
Ovaj sto je moj. This table is mine.
Ova knjiga je zanimljiva. This book is interesting.

Taj refers to something near the person spoken to:
Taj pas je tvoj. That dog is yours.
Ta žena je učiteljica. That woman is a teacher.

Onaj refers to something farther away:
Onaj grad je daleko. That city is far away.
Ono dete je veselo. That child is cheerful.

These pronouns also have neuter and plural forms and decline for gender and case, just like adjectives.

They can also function independently:
Koji hoćeš – ovaj ili onaj? Which one do you want – this or that?

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions about people or things. The main ones are ko who and šta what. They change form depending on case.

Ko je to? Who is that?
Koga voliš? Whom do you love?
Kome si dao knjigu? To whom did you give the book?
Šta radiš? What are you doing?
Sa čim pišeš? What are you writing with?

When asking about ownership, Serbian uses čiji whose, which agrees with the noun it modifies:
Čiji je ovo auto? Whose car is this?
Čija je torba? Whose bag is it?
Čiji su ključevi? Whose keys are these?

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce clauses that describe or identify a noun mentioned earlier. The main relative pronoun is koji, which means who, which, or that. It agrees with the noun it refers to in gender and number, and its case depends on its role in the clause.

Čovek koji stoji tamo je moj otac. The man who is standing there is my father.
Knjiga koju čitam je dobra. The book that I’m reading is good.
Film koji smo gledali je zanimljiv. The film we watched is interesting.

Other related forms include čiji whose, gde where, and kad when, used to connect sentences more naturally.

Grad gde živim je lep. The city where I live is beautiful.
Dan kad smo se upoznali bio je poseban. The day when we met was special.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to nonspecific people or things—someone, something, anyone, nothing, etc.

Common examples include:
neko someone
nešto something
niko no one
ništa nothing
svako everyone
sve everything

Examples in context:
Neko kuca na vrata. Someone is knocking on the door.
Nešto se dešava. Something is happening.
Niko ne zna odgovor. No one knows the answer.
Ništa nisam video. I didn’t see anything.
Sve je u redu. Everything is fine.

The negative forms niko and ništa always appear with the negative particle ne in the verb, following Serbian double negation rules.

Reciprocal Pronouns

To express mutual actions, Serbian uses the combination jedan drugog each other or jedni druge one another.

Mi se poznajemo. We know each other.
Oni se vole. They love each other.
Pomagali su jedan drugome. They helped one another.

These structures show reciprocity between two or more subjects and are often paired with reflexive verbs.

Emphatic and Contrastive Pronouns

Sometimes pronouns are emphasized to show contrast or intensity. Serbian uses forms like sam myself, ti sam yourself, on sam himself for emphasis.

Ja sam to uradio. I did it myself.
Ti sam si kriv. You yourself are to blame.
Ona sama živi. She lives alone.

These emphatic constructions highlight who performed the action or underline independence and responsibility.

Pronoun Position in Sentences

Serbian pronouns—especially the short, unstressed forms—obey strict rules about word order. They almost always occupy the second position in a clause, immediately after the first stressed word or phrase.

Ja te volim. I love you.
Sutra ću ti reći. Tomorrow I will tell you.
On mi je dao knjigu. He gave me the book.

Even if the word order changes for emphasis, the pronoun still appears early in the sentence.
Tebi ću reći istinu. To you I will tell the truth.

This placement rule is one of the key features of Serbian syntax and applies equally to personal, reflexive, and auxiliary clitics.

SERBIAN PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions in Serbian are small but powerful words that express relationships between nouns, pronouns, or phrases and other elements in the sentence. They often describe direction, place, time, cause, possession, and means. While English prepositions usually have fixed meanings, Serbian prepositions are closely tied to the case system: each preposition governs one or more grammatical cases, and its meaning changes depending on which case it requires.

Because Serbian is an inflected language, prepositions do not change their own form, but they affect the form of the noun or pronoun that follows. Mastering prepositions in Serbian requires not only knowing their meanings but also understanding which case they control and how the meaning changes with different cases.

Prepositions of Place

Prepositions of place describe where something or someone is located or where something moves. The two most common prepositions for expressing location and movement are u in and na on/at.

U is used to indicate being inside or going into an enclosed space or country:
U sobi. In the room.
Idem u školu. I’m going to school.
Živim u Beogradu. I live in Belgrade.

When u expresses motion toward a place, it requires the accusative case (u školu). When it expresses location, it takes the locative case (u školi).

Na is used for open spaces, surfaces, and certain institutions or events:
Na stolu. On the table.
Idem na pijacu. I’m going to the market.
Na koncertu. At the concert.

Like u, na takes the accusative when indicating movement (na pijacu) and the locative when indicating position (na pijaci).

Other prepositions of place include:
Ispod under, iznad above, pored beside, iza behind, ispred in front of, između between, oko around.

Examples:
Mačka je ispod stola. The cat is under the table.
Slika je iznad kreveta. The picture is above the bed.
Stojim pored tebe. I am standing beside you.

Prepositions of Direction

Prepositions of direction express movement from one place to another. The most frequent are u, na, ka, prema, do, and od.

Ka and prema both mean toward:
Idem ka gradu. I am going toward the city.
Prema jugu. Toward the south.

Do means to or as far as:
Idem do prodavnice. I’m going to the store.

Od means from:
Dolazim od prijatelja. I’m coming from a friend’s house.

Iz also means from, but it implies coming out of an enclosed space:
Iz kuće. Out of the house.

These prepositions often govern the genitive case (od prijatelja, iz kuće, do grada).

Prepositions of Time

Prepositions can also express when something happens—time of day, duration, or a specific period.

U is used with days or parts of the day:
U ponedeljak. On Monday.
Ujutru. In the morning.

Na appears in phrases related to holidays or events:
Na Božić. At Christmas.
Na kraju godine. At the end of the year.

Za expresses duration or future time:
Za dva dana. In two days.
Za vikend. During the weekend.

Posle after, pre before, and tokom during all take the genitive case:
Posle ručka. After lunch.
Pre sastanka. Before the meeting.
Tokom leta. During summer.

Prepositions of Cause, Purpose, and Means

Some Serbian prepositions express reason, purpose, or the instrument used to perform an action.

Zbog because of takes the genitive:
Kasnim zbog saobraćaja. I am late because of traffic.

Radi for the sake of or in order to also takes the genitive:
Učim radi posla. I study for work purposes.

Sa with and bez without are used to express accompaniment or absence:
Idem sa prijateljem. I’m going with a friend.
Kafa bez šećera. Coffee without sugar.

Sa requires the instrumental case, while bez takes the genitive.

S pomoću with the help of and putem by means of are used to express the tool or method used:
Pišem olovkom. I write with a pencil.
Putujem vozom. I travel by train.

Prepositions of Comparison and Relation

Prepositions like od, po, and za are often used to express comparison, relation, or equivalence.

Od than is used after comparative adjectives:
On je stariji od brata. He is older than his brother.

Po can indicate distribution or relation:
Po jedan za svakog. One each for everyone.
Po mom mišljenju. In my opinion.

Za can indicate relation or substitution:
On radi za firmu. He works for a company.
Govori za sve nas. He speaks for all of us.

Prepositions with Multiple Meanings

Many Serbian prepositions have different meanings depending on the case they are followed by. The most typical examples are u and na, which change meaning depending on whether they take the accusative (movement) or locative (position).

Idem u školu. I am going to school.
Radim u školi. I work in the school.

Penjem se na planinu. I am climbing up the mountain.
Stojim na planini. I am standing on the mountain.

Another example is između, which always governs the genitive but can express both spatial and abstract relations:
Između kuće i reke. Between the house and the river.
Između ljubavi i dužnosti. Between love and duty.

Compound and Idiomatic Prepositions

Serbian also uses compound prepositions formed from combinations of prepositions and nouns or adverbs. These include iznad above, ispod below, pored next to, preko across, nasuprot opposite, unutar inside, and van outside.

Auto stoji ispred kuće. The car is parked in front of the house.
Prolazimo preko mosta. We are crossing the bridge.
Deca su unutar škole. The children are inside the school.

Some expressions are idiomatic and have figurative meanings that differ from their literal spatial sense:
Pod pritiskom under pressure,
Ispod časti beneath one’s dignity,
Van sebe beside oneself (emotionally overwhelmed).

Prepositions and Word Order

In Serbian, prepositions always precede the noun or pronoun they govern. They form a single grammatical unit with the following word, and the meaning cannot be separated by other elements.

Na stolu on the table, not stolu na.
Sa mnom with me, not mnom sa.

However, the order of the entire prepositional phrase within the sentence can vary depending on emphasis:
Na stolu je knjiga. The book is on the table.
Knjiga je na stolu. The book is on the table.

The difference lies in focus—one emphasizes the location, the other the object.

ADVERBS IN SERBIAN

Adverbs in Serbian are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or even entire sentences. They express how, when, where, or to what extent an action takes place. Unlike adjectives, which agree with nouns in gender, number, and case, adverbs are invariable — their form never changes. This makes them simpler to use, but their placement and formation in sentences require careful understanding. Adverbs bring richness, precision, and rhythm to Serbian speech and writing by indicating manner, time, place, quantity, affirmation, or doubt.

Adverbs often answer questions such as kako? how?, gde? where?, kada? when?, and koliko? how much?. They add emotional tone and nuance, helping to shape the meaning of a sentence beyond the literal sense of the words.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner describe how an action is performed. They are among the most common types of adverbs in Serbian.

Many of them are formed from adjectives, typically by replacing the adjective ending -o or -e. For example:
lep – lepo beautiful – beautifully
brz – brzo fast – quickly
tih – tiho quiet – quietly

Examples:
On govori tiho. He speaks quietly.
Pisala je lepo. She wrote beautifully.
Pas trči brzo. The dog runs fast.

These adverbs modify the verb directly and express the manner in which the action happens. They do not change form regardless of the subject’s gender or number.

Some adverbs of manner are independent words not derived from adjectives:
dobro well, loše badly, tačno exactly, pažljivo carefully, naglo suddenly.

On peva dobro. He sings well.
Učitelj objašnjava tačno. The teacher explains precisely.

Adverbs of Place

Adverbs of place indicate where something happens. They often correspond to English adverbs like here, there, everywhere, or inside.

Common adverbs of place include:
ovde here, tamo there, ovamo this way, tamo that way, unutra inside, napolju outside, gore up, dole down, blizu near, daleko far.

Examples:
Dođi ovde. Come here.
Idem tamo. I am going there.
Ključ je unutra. The key is inside.
Ptica leti gore. The bird is flying up.

Adverbs of place can also express direction when combined with verbs of movement.
Vrati se nazad. Go back.
Pomeri se napred. Move forward.

Some adverbs of place are derived from prepositional phrases:
kod kuće at home, na poslu at work, u blizini nearby.

Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of time indicate when an action takes place. They can describe the exact time, frequency, duration, or sequence of events.

Common adverbs of time include:
sada now, juče yesterday, danas today, sutra tomorrow, uveče in the evening, ujutru in the morning, često often, retko rarely, uvek always, nikad never, ponekad sometimes.

Examples:
Danas učimo gramatiku. Today we are learning grammar.
Uvek dolazim ranije. I always come early.
Nikad ne kasnim. I never come late.
Juče je padala kiša. Yesterday it rained.

Adverbs of time often appear at the beginning or end of a sentence for emphasis:
Sutra idem na posao. Tomorrow I am going to work.
Idem na posao sutra. I am going to work tomorrow.

Adverbs of Quantity and Degree

These adverbs express how much or to what extent something happens or is true. They are used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Common examples include:
mnogo much, a lot, malo a little, vrlo very, veoma extremely, previše too much, dovoljno enough, skoro almost, potpuno completely.

Examples:
On mnogo radi. He works a lot.
Veoma sam umoran. I am very tired.
Voda je previše vruća. The water is too hot.
Ona je skoro spremna. She is almost ready.

Adverbs of degree are particularly useful when expressing emotions or evaluations:
Baš lepo! Really nice!
Jako mi se sviđa. I like it very much.

Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation

Adverbs of affirmation express agreement or certainty, while adverbs of negation express denial or absence.

Common affirmative adverbs are da yes, naravno of course, zaista really, svakako certainly, tačno exactly.

Common negative adverbs are ne no, nikako by no means, nipošto under no circumstances, nikada never.

Examples:
Da, dolazim. Yes, I am coming.
Naravno da znam. Of course I know.
Ne, nisam video. No, I didn’t see.
Nikako ne mogu sada. I absolutely can’t right now.

Negation in Serbian is often strengthened by double negatives, which are grammatically correct:
Nikad ništa ne kažem. I never say anything.
Niko ne dolazi. Nobody is coming.

Adverbs of Cause and Reason

These adverbs explain why something happens. They correspond to English words like therefore, thus, so, or because of that.

Common examples include:
zato therefore, tako so, thus, otuda hence, usled toga as a result.

Kasnio sam, zato što je padala kiša. I was late because it was raining.
Bilo je hladno, pa sam ostao kod kuće. It was cold, so I stayed at home.
Otuda njegova nervoza. Hence his nervousness.

Adverbs of cause often connect clauses logically and are common in both spoken and written Serbian.

Formation of Adverbs

Most adverbs in Serbian are derived from adjectives. The most common way to form them is by replacing the adjective’s ending -i, -a, or -e with -o or -e.

Examples:
lep – lepo beautiful – beautifully
siguran – sigurno certain – certainly
tačan – tačno exact – exactly

Some adverbs are formed irregularly or have no direct adjective equivalent:
dobro well (from dobar good)
loše badly (from loš bad)
mnogo a lot (no adjective equivalent).

Comparison of Adverbs

Like adjectives, many adverbs have degrees of comparison — positive, comparative, and superlative.

The comparative degree is formed by adding -ije or -je to the stem, and the superlative is made by adding the prefix naj- to the comparative.

brzo – brže – najbrže fast – faster – fastest
lepo – lepše – najlepše beautifully – more beautifully – most beautifully

Examples:
On trči brže od mene. He runs faster than me.
Peva najlepše od svih. She sings the most beautifully of all.

Some adverbs have irregular comparative forms:
dobro – bolje – najbolje well – better – best
loše – gore – najgore badly – worse – worst.

Position of Adverbs in the Sentence

In Serbian, the typical position of adverbs is before the verb they modify. However, they can also appear at the beginning or end of a sentence for emphasis or stylistic reasons.

On lepo peva. He sings beautifully.
Lepo on peva. He really sings beautifully. (emphatic)
On peva lepo. He sings beautifully. (neutral or rhythmic)

Adverbs that refer to time or frequency often appear at the beginning of the sentence:
Sutra idem u grad. Tomorrow I am going to the city.
Često putujem. I travel often.

Adverbial Expressions

Serbian frequently uses multi-word adverbial expressions, where prepositions and nouns form phrases that function as adverbs.

Examples:
uopšte at all,
na brzinu quickly,
bez sumnje without doubt,
nažalost unfortunately,
u stvari in fact,
po običaju as usual.

Nažalost, ne mogu doći. Unfortunately, I can’t come.
U stvari, nisam znao. In fact, I didn’t know.

These expressions are fixed in meaning and are often used idiomatically.

PRESENT TENSE IN SERBIAN

The present tense in Serbian, known as sadašnje vreme, is one of the most essential and frequently used parts of the verb system. It expresses actions that are happening at the moment of speaking, habitual actions, or general truths. Serbian verbs in the present tense are richly inflected: their endings change according to person and number, and the form of the stem can vary depending on the verb group. Because of this, understanding the present tense requires learning both the verb conjugation patterns and the concept of aspect—a key feature of all Slavic languages.

The present tense is used only with imperfective verbs to express ongoing or repeated actions. Perfective verbs, which describe completed actions, do not have a present tense form with the same meaning; their “present” forms usually refer to future actions.

The Function of the Present Tense

The present tense in Serbian covers three main functions:

1. Immediate action:
   Pišem pismo. I am writing a letter.
   Ona čita knjigu. She is reading a book.

2. Habitual or repeated action:
   Uvek pijem kafu ujutru. I always drink coffee in the morning.
   Oni često putuju. They travel often.

3. General truth or permanent state:
   Sunce sija. The sun shines.
   Voda ključa na sto stepeni. Water boils at one hundred degrees.

The Serbian present tense therefore combines the meanings of both the English simple present and present continuous.

Formation of the Present Tense

To form the present tense, Serbian verbs are divided into three main conjugation groups based on the infinitive ending: -ati, -iti, and -eti / -uti. Each group has its own set of endings that are added to the stem of the verb.

To find the stem, remove the infinitive ending -ti from the dictionary form:
raditi to work → radi-
pevati to sing → peva-
čuti to hear → ču-

Then add the appropriate present-tense endings according to the verb group. Though endings differ slightly among verbs, they always mark the six grammatical persons (I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they).

Examples of Present-Tense Conjugation

Let’s see how different verbs conjugate in the present tense.

Raditi to work (imperfective)
Ja radim. I work.
Ti radiš. You work.
On radi. He works.
Mi radimo. We work.
Vi radite. You (plural) work.
Oni rade. They work.

Pevati to sing (imperfective)
Ja pevam. I sing.
Ti pevaš. You sing.
Ona peva. She sings.
Mi pevamo. We sing.
Vi pevate. You sing.
One pevaju. They sing.

Čuti to hear (perfective in form but used with future meaning)*
Ja čujem. I hear (will hear).
Ti čuješ. You hear.
On čuje. He hears.

The pattern shows how endings attach directly to the stem, and vowel alternations or consonant shifts may occur depending on the verb stem.

Personal Endings in the Present Tense

All verbs share the same set of person markers, though the vowel before them may change. The endings are:

-m, -š, -∅, -mo, -te, -ju / -e

They correspond to the six grammatical persons:
ja I, ti you, on/ona/ono he/she/it, mi we, vi you (plural/formal), oni/one/ona they.

For example:
Volim te. I love you.
Znaš li? Do you know?
Oni jedu. They eat.

Present Tense and Verb Aspect

In Serbian, every verb belongs to one of two aspects: imperfective or perfective.

• Imperfective verbs describe ongoing, repeated, or habitual actions, and they are the only ones that can express true present time.
  Čitam knjigu. I am reading a book.
  Pijem čaj. I am drinking tea.

• Perfective verbs describe completed actions and are typically used to express the future, even when conjugated in the present form.
  Pročitam knjigu sutra. I will read the book tomorrow.
  Popijem čaj posle ručka. I will drink tea after lunch.

Aspect is therefore crucial for correct tense usage. Learners must memorize whether a verb is perfective or imperfective because it determines how the present tense is used.

Use of the Auxiliary Verb “biti” in the Present

The verb biti to be is irregular and highly important in Serbian grammar. It serves both as a main verb and as an auxiliary for forming other tenses.

Its present forms are:
jesam, si, je, smo, ste, su.

Examples:
Ja sam student. I am a student.
Ti si umoran. You are tired.
Oni su srećni. They are happy.

In negative sentences, biti uses nisam, nisi, nije, nismo, niste, nisu:
Ja nisam lekar. I am not a doctor.
Ona nije ovde. She is not here.

Biti is also used to form the future and conditional tenses, so learning its present form is essential early on.

Present Tense in Negative Sentences

To make a verb negative in the present tense, simply add the particle ne before the verb. The ne remains separate from the verb except with biti, where it combines into one word.

Ne radim. I do not work.
Ne spavaš. You are not sleeping.
Ne idemo u školu. We are not going to school.
Nisu kod kuće. They are not at home.

Negation is straightforward and applies to all verbs in the same way.

Questions in the Present Tense

Questions in Serbian are usually formed by changing intonation or adding the particle li after the verb (or after the first element of the verb phrase).

Radiš li? Do you work?
Ideš li u školu? Are you going to school?
Da li spavaš? Are you sleeping?
Da li voliš muziku? Do you like music?

When da li is used, the sentence structure remains the same as in statements; the only difference is tone.

Reflexive Verbs in the Present Tense

Many Serbian verbs are reflexive, meaning they include the pronoun se, which reflects the action back on the subject. The reflexive pronoun follows the verb’s person and number in the present tense.

Zovem se Ana. My name is Ana.
Sećam se tog dana. I remember that day.
Smeješ se. You are laughing.
Oni se nadaju. They hope.

Reflexive verbs are conjugated like regular verbs, but se always appears after the verb.

Present Tense for Future Actions

Although Serbian has a separate future tense, the present tense can also express near-future actions, especially when time is clearly indicated by adverbs like sutra tomorrow, uskoro soon, or posle later.

Sutra idem u Beograd. Tomorrow I am going to Belgrade.
Večeras gledam film. Tonight I am watching a movie.

This usage is common in spoken Serbian and makes the language sound more natural.

Use in Subordinate Clauses

The present tense frequently appears in subordinate clauses introduced by da that, ako if, or kada when.

Želim da naučim srpski. I want to learn Serbian.
Ako pada kiša, ostajem kod kuće. If it rains, I stay at home.
Kada dođe, reći ću mu sve. When he comes, I will tell him everything.

The verb following da takes the present tense form, even when the main clause refers to the future.

Word Order and Emphasis

The normal word order in Serbian is Subject–Verb–Object, but because of case endings, word order can vary without changing the basic meaning. This flexibility allows speakers to emphasize different parts of a sentence.

Ja učim srpski. I am learning Serbian.
Srpski učim ja. It is I who am learning Serbian.
Učim ja srpski svaki dan. I do learn Serbian every day.

The present tense verb always carries the main stress of the clause and anchors the sentence’s meaning.

PAST TENSE IN SERBIAN

The past tense in Serbian, called prošlo vreme, is used to describe actions, events, or states that have already happened. It is one of the most frequently used verb forms in the language and is essential for everyday communication. The Serbian past tense corresponds to both the English simple past (I worked) and the present perfect (I have worked), depending on context.

What makes the Serbian past tense distinctive is that it is not formed by changing the verb ending directly, but rather by combining an auxiliary verb—biti (to be) in the present tense—with the past participle (known as the l-participle). This combination reflects both the person of the subject and the gender and number of the noun or pronoun performing the action.

Formation of the Past Tense

To form the past tense in Serbian, you need two elements:

1. The auxiliary verb biti (to be) in the present tense.

2. The past participle (the l-form) of the main verb.

The auxiliary biti agrees with the subject in person and number, while the past participle agrees with it in gender and number.

Biti in the present tense is: sam, si, je, smo, ste, su.

The past participle is created by removing the infinitive ending -ti and adding -o for masculine, -la for feminine, and -lo for neuter singular subjects, or -li for plural subjects.

For example, from raditi to work:
radio (masculine), radila (feminine), radilo (neuter), radili (plural).

The full past tense forms are:
Ja sam radio. I worked.
Ti si radila. You worked (fem.).
On je radio. He worked.
Ona je radila. She worked.
Mi smo radili. We worked.
Oni su radili. They worked.

In spoken Serbian, the auxiliary is often dropped when the subject is obvious, especially in the third person:
Radio je. He worked.
Radila je. She worked.
Radili smo. We worked.

Agreement of Gender and Number

One of the most characteristic features of the Serbian past tense is that the past participle agrees with the subject in gender and number. This is different from English, where the past form remains the same regardless of gender.

On je došao. He came.
Ona je došla. She came.
Ono je došlo. It came.
Oni su došli. They (masc.) came.
One su došle. They (fem.) came.

This agreement makes the past tense highly descriptive and clear, even when the subject is omitted.

Use of the Auxiliary “biti”

The auxiliary biti is essential for forming the past tense. It always appears before or after the past participle and changes for person and number, while the participle itself changes for gender and number.

Ja sam pisao pismo. I wrote a letter.
Ti si gledala film. You watched a movie.
Oni su kupili auto. They bought a car.

In informal or rapid speech, the auxiliary can sometimes be omitted in the third person singular:
Pisao film. He wrote the film. (colloquial)

However, in formal writing and standard speech, the auxiliary is always included.

The Past Participle (L-Form)

The past participle, called the l-participle, is formed by removing the infinitive ending -ti and adding -l plus a gender or number marker. It is named after the consonant l, which appears in every form.

Raditi to work → radio, radila, radilo, radili
Pisati to write → pisao, pisala, pisalo, pisali
Videti to see → video, videla, videlo, videli

This form functions as the core of the past tense and appears with the auxiliary verb to indicate completed action.

Negative Sentences in the Past Tense

To form a negative past tense sentence, the negative particle ne is placed directly before the auxiliary biti.

Nisam radio. I didn’t work.
Nisi došla. You didn’t come (fem.).
Nije spavao. He didn’t sleep.
Nismo gledali film. We didn’t watch the film.
Nisu stigli na vreme. They didn’t arrive on time.

The auxiliary and ne merge into one word in all persons (nisam, nisi, nije, nismo, niste, nisu).

Questions in the Past Tense

Questions are formed by changing word order or by adding the interrogative particle li after the auxiliary.

Da li si radio juče? Did you work yesterday?
Jesi li video Mariju? Did you see Marija?
Je li došao? Has he come?

In everyday speech, da li is the most common way to introduce a question.

Aspect in the Past Tense

Aspect plays a vital role in the Serbian past tense.

• Imperfective verbs describe continuous, habitual, or repeated actions in the past.
  Pisao sam svaki dan. I used to write every day.
  Radila je ceo dan. She was working all day.

• Perfective verbs describe completed actions.
  Napisao sam pismo. I wrote (and finished) the letter.
  Kupila je knjigu. She bought the book.

Both aspects can appear in the past tense, but they express different nuances. The imperfective indicates duration or repetition, while the perfective highlights completion or a single event.

The Verb “biti” in the Past Tense

The verb biti to be is irregular in the past tense. Its forms are derived from its own past participle and serve as the main verb when describing existence, state, or location.

Ja sam bio / bila. I was.
Ti si bio / bila. You were.
On je bio. He was.
Ona je bila. She was.
Mi smo bili. We were.
One su bile. They (fem.) were.

This verb is essential for forming other compound tenses such as the pluperfect and conditional, so mastering its past forms is crucial.

Omission of the Auxiliary Verb

In colloquial Serbian, especially in the third person singular, the auxiliary je is often dropped, as the participle and context make the meaning clear.

On bio tamo. He was there.
Ona radila ceo dan. She worked all day.

However, in formal language, the auxiliary should always be included:
On je bio tamo. He was there.

Reflexive Verbs in the Past Tense

When conjugating reflexive verbs in the past tense, the reflexive pronoun se is placed after the auxiliary verb and before the participle.

Ja sam se probudio. I woke up.
Ona se umila. She washed herself.
Mi smo se vratili. We returned.

The reflexive se never changes form and always stays close to the verb.

The Past Tense and Word Order

Although Serbian has flexible word order, the most common structure for past tense sentences is:
subject + auxiliary + (se) + participle + object.

Ja sam kupio knjigu. I bought a book.
Ti si mi rekao istinu. You told me the truth.
Oni su se vratili kući. They returned home.

Word order can change for emphasis, but the relationship between the auxiliary and participle remains intact.

Expressing Duration and Repetition

The past tense can be combined with time expressions to indicate how long an action lasted or how often it was repeated.

Radio sam tri sata. I worked for three hours.
Ponavljala je lekciju svaki dan. She repeated the lesson every day.

To emphasize continuity, speakers often use imperfective verbs with adverbs like stalno constantly, uvek always, or često often.

Past Tense in Subordinate Clauses

The past tense is frequently used in subordinate clauses introduced by kad when, pošto after, or dok while.

Kad sam došao, oni su već jeli. When I arrived, they had already eaten.
Pošto sam završio posao, otišao sam kući. After I finished work, I went home.
Dok smo čekali, razgovarali smo. While we were waiting, we talked.

Tense consistency is important—verbs in both clauses should reflect the proper sequence of events.

Common Time Expressions Used with the Past

The past tense is often accompanied by time markers such as:
juče yesterday, prošle nedelje last week, pre tri dana three days ago, nekad once, ranije earlier, onda then, tada at that time.

Juče sam bio u Beogradu. Yesterday I was in Belgrade.
Pre dve godine sam studirala u Italiji. Two years ago I studied in Italy.

These expressions help clarify when the action took place and whether it was completed or habitual.

FUTURE TENSE IN SERBIAN

The future tense in Serbian, called buduće vreme, is used to describe actions or events that will take place after the moment of speaking. It corresponds to the English will or shall forms, but its structure and usage follow distinct Slavic patterns. In Serbian, the future tense can express both certain and probable future events, intentions, promises, or predictions. It is also used in subordinate clauses when referring to actions that have not yet occurred.

Serbian actually has two main ways of expressing future time: Future I, which is the standard and most frequently used form, and Future II, which is mainly used in formal, literary, or conditional contexts. The focus here will be on Future I, as it is the form used in everyday speech and writing.

Formation of the Future Tense (Future I)

The Serbian Future I is formed using the auxiliary verb hteti to want (which in this context functions as a future marker) combined with the infinitive or present stem of the main verb. The auxiliary hteti is irregular and usually appears in its short clitic form: ću, ćeš, će, ćemo, ćete, će.

These short forms are placed either before or after the main verb, depending on whether the verb is in the infinitive or not.

When the verb is in the infinitive form, the auxiliary follows the verb:
Raditi ću sutra. I will work tomorrow.

However, in modern spoken and written Serbian, the infinitive is often replaced by the present stem of the verb, and the auxiliary comes before it:
Sutra ću raditi. I will work tomorrow.

This second structure is the most natural and common in contemporary Serbian.

The Auxiliary Verb “hteti”

The auxiliary hteti has full forms (hoću, hoćeš, hoće, hoćemo, hoćete, hoće) and short clitic forms (ću, ćeš, će, ćemo, ćete, će).

The short forms are used in forming the future tense, while the full forms retain their original meaning of to want.

Compare:
Hoću da idem. I want to go.
Ići ću. I will go.

Though they look similar, the meanings differ completely—one expresses desire, the other expresses future intention or certainty.

Word Order in the Future Tense

Word order in Serbian is flexible, but there are two typical patterns depending on whether the infinitive or present stem is used.

1. Infinitive + auxiliary after the verb (more formal, common in writing):
   Učiti ću ceo dan. I will study all day.
   Raditi ćemo naporno. We will work hard.

2. Auxiliary + present stem (preferred in speech):
   Ceo dan ću učiti. I will study all day.
   Mi ćemo raditi naporno. We will work hard.

When short clitic forms of ću, ćeš, etc. appear before the verb, they attach closely to it and cannot be separated by another word except for certain clitics like se or ga.

Sutra ću se odmoriti. Tomorrow I will rest.
On će ga pozvati. He will call him.

Negative Sentences in the Future

To form a negative future tense, the negative particle ne is placed in front of the auxiliary ću/ćeš/će. The two words are often merged in speech and writing:

Neću, nećeš, neće, nećemo, nećete, neće.

Neću raditi sutra. I will not work tomorrow.
Ona neće doći. She will not come.
Mi nećemo putovati. We will not travel.

The negative auxiliary can never follow the main verb; it must precede it.

Reflexive Verbs in the Future Tense

Reflexive verbs, which use the particle se, follow the same pattern as regular verbs. The reflexive particle se stands after the auxiliary and before the main verb.

Sutra ću se probuditi rano. Tomorrow I will wake up early.
Nećemo se svađati. We will not argue.
Oni će se venčati na proleće. They will get married in spring.

This position of se between the auxiliary and the verb is fixed and must be respected in all tenses.

Future Tense with Perfective and Imperfective Verbs

In Serbian, both perfective and imperfective verbs can form the future tense, but their meanings differ slightly depending on aspect.

• Perfective verbs in the future tense indicate a single, completed action that will take place:
  Pročitaću knjigu. I will read (finish) the book.
  Kupićeš kartu. You will buy the ticket.

• Imperfective verbs describe ongoing, repeated, or habitual future actions:
  Čitaću knjigu sutra. I will be reading the book tomorrow.
  Kupovaćeš karte često. You will buy tickets often.

The choice between aspects gives Serbian great flexibility in expressing time and intention precisely.

Questions in the Future Tense

Questions are formed in the same way as in other tenses, either by inverting the word order or by adding the particle li.

Hoćeš li doći sutra? Will you come tomorrow?
Da li ćeš doći sutra? Will you come tomorrow?
Kada ćeš doći? When will you come?

When a question word like kada, gde, or zašto appears, li is not necessary.

Expressing Intention and Probability

The future tense is often used to express intention, promise, or likelihood. It can reflect not just an action that will happen, but also the speaker’s attitude toward it.

Videću ga sutra. I’ll see him tomorrow. (neutral statement)
Bićeš umoran ako ne spavaš. You’ll be tired if you don’t sleep. (prediction)
Nećeš mi verovati! You won’t believe me! (emphasis, certainty)

Sometimes, the future tense can even sound polite or softened in tone when used instead of direct imperatives:
Sada ćete mi reći istinu. Now you will tell me the truth.

Future Tense with Time Expressions

The future tense is frequently used with time adverbs and phrases that specify when the event will happen. These expressions clarify the timeframe of the action.

Common time expressions include:
sutra tomorrow, uskoro soon, sledeće nedelje next week, za dva dana in two days, jednog dana one day, kasnije later, na proleće in spring.

Examples:
Sutra ću otići u biblioteku. Tomorrow I will go to the library.
Uskoro ćemo završiti posao. We will finish the work soon.
Za tri dana će stići paket. The package will arrive in three days.

Future Tense in Subordinate Clauses

In Serbian, the future tense often appears in subordinate clauses introduced by kada when, ako if, čim as soon as, or dok while.

Kada dođeš, pozovi me. When you come, call me.
Ako bude kiše, nećemo ići. If it rains, we won’t go.
Čim stignemo, javiću se. As soon as we arrive, I’ll call.

Note that Serbian uses the future tense in both parts of such sentences, even when English might use the present in the subordinate clause.

The Verb “biti” in the Future

The verb biti to be is irregular in the future tense. It uses the auxiliary ću, ćeš, etc., combined with the infinitive biti:

Ja ću biti tamo. I will be there.
Ti ćeš biti umoran. You will be tired.
Oni će biti srećni. They will be happy.

In speech, ću biti often merges slightly, creating a soft flow: ćubiti, ćeš biti, etc., though in writing they remain separate words.

Future II (Buduće Vreme II)

Though rarely used in everyday conversation, Serbian also has a Future II, a more complex form that expresses an action that will occur before another future action. It is common in literature, legal language, and conditional clauses.

It is formed with the auxiliary biti in the future tense plus the past participle of the main verb.

Ako budem imao vremena, doći ću. If I have time, I will come.
Kada budeš završio, javi mi se. When you have finished, let me know.

This tense is roughly equivalent to the English when you have done something, you will…, and it emphasizes the completion of one future action before another.

Differences Between “ću” + Infinitive and “ću” + Present Form

Both structures are grammatically correct, but they differ slightly in style and frequency:

• Infinitive form (radiću, pisati ću) sounds more formal and is often used in written Serbian, especially in Montenegro and Croatia.

• Present form (ću raditi, ću pisati) is more natural in spoken Serbian and dominates in Serbia.

Radiću sutra. I will work tomorrow. (formal or literary)
Sutra ću raditi. I will work tomorrow. (neutral, natural)

For learners of Serbian, the second option is more practical for daily use.

Comparison with the Present Tense for Future Meaning

Serbian sometimes uses the present tense to refer to near-future events when the time is clearly indicated by context. This is common in spoken language and resembles English phrases like I’m going tomorrow.

Sutra idem u školu. I’m going to school tomorrow.
Večeras gledam film. I’m watching a movie tonight.

The difference between this and the future tense is subtle: the present tense implies a fixed plan or arrangement, while the future tense emphasizes intention or prediction.

NEGATION IN SERBIAN

Negation in Serbian is a fundamental grammatical process used to deny an action, state, or quality. It affects verbs, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and even entire clauses. The way negation works in Serbian is both simple in structure and rich in expression. Serbian is a double-negative language, meaning that it often uses multiple negative elements in the same sentence without changing the negative meaning. This feature is essential to master for clear and natural communication.

The main negative particle in Serbian is ne, which is placed before the verb. Depending on the verb and tense, ne can stand alone or merge with the auxiliary verb to form a single word. Other negative words such as nikad never, niko nobody, ništa nothing, and nigde nowhere commonly accompany ne, reinforcing the negation.

Negation of Verbs

Negating verbs in Serbian is straightforward. The particle ne is placed directly before the verb in all tenses except when it merges with certain auxiliaries.

Ne radim. I do not work.
Ne znam. I do not know.
Ne dolazim danas. I am not coming today.

The particle ne never changes form and is always separated from the main verb, except in the case of the auxiliary verb biti (to be) in the present tense, where it fuses with the verb:

Nisam. I am not.
Nisi. You are not.
Nije. He/she/it is not.
Nismo. We are not.
Niste. You are not.
Nisu. They are not.

Examples:
Nisam umoran. I am not tired.
Ona nije ovde. She is not here.
Mi nismo spremni. We are not ready.

The same rule applies to past and future tenses, where ne stands before the auxiliary verb:
Nisam radio. I did not work.
Neću doći. I will not come.

Negation in the Present Tense

In the present tense, the negative particle ne is placed before the conjugated verb. It negates any action or state happening now or habitually.

Ne jedem meso. I do not eat meat.
Ne govorim engleski. I do not speak English.
Ne pijemo kafu. We do not drink coffee.

When the sentence contains a reflexive verb, ne stands before the reflexive pronoun se:
Ne sećam se. I do not remember.
Ne smejem se. I am not laughing.
Ne nadam se tome. I do not hope for that.

This fixed word order—ne + se + verb—must always be preserved.

Negation in the Past Tense

To form negation in the past tense, ne precedes the auxiliary biti in the present tense, which is used to form the past. The auxiliary and ne are often contracted into one word.

Nisam video film. I did not see the movie.
Nisi stigao na vreme. You did not arrive on time.
Nije spavala noćas. She did not sleep last night.
Nismo kupili hleb. We did not buy bread.
Nisu došli. They did not come.

This pattern remains consistent for all verbs, regardless of gender or number, because the negation affects only the auxiliary, not the participle.

Negation in the Future Tense

In the future tense, ne also precedes the auxiliary ću, ćeš, će, etc., and they merge into one negative form: neću, nećeš, neće, nećemo, nećete, neće.

Neću raditi sutra. I will not work tomorrow.
Nećeš ići u školu. You will not go to school.
Ona neće doći. She will not come.
Nećemo kasniti. We will not be late.

This construction is fixed and cannot be rearranged; the negative auxiliary must come before the main verb.

Negation with the Verb “biti”

The verb biti (to be) is special in Serbian because its negated present-tense forms merge with ne, as shown earlier.

Nisam I am not
Nisi you are not
Nije he/she/it is not
Nismo we are not
Niste you (plural) are not
Nisu they are not

In the past tense, biti follows the same rule:
Nisam bio/bila. I was not.
Nisu bili. They were not.

In the future tense, biti takes the normal negated auxiliary:
Neću biti tamo. I will not be there.

Double Negation

One of the most characteristic features of Serbian negation is the frequent use of double (or multiple) negation. In English, a double negative often creates a positive meaning, but in Serbian it reinforces the negation.

Nikad ne idem u bioskop. I never go to the cinema.
Niko ne zna. Nobody knows.
Ništa ne razumem. I do not understand anything.
Nigde ne idem. I am not going anywhere.

All these examples contain two negative elements (ne + a negative pronoun or adverb), but the meaning remains purely negative. This is grammatically correct and stylistically normal in Serbian.

Triple negation is also possible when emphasizing strong denial:
Nikad ništa nikome ne kažem. I never tell anything to anyone.

Negative Pronouns and Adverbs

Negative pronouns and adverbs are essential in forming natural-sounding negation in Serbian. They always require the presence of ne with the verb.

niko nobody
ništa nothing
nikad never
nikuda / nigde nowhere
ništa više nothing more

Examples:
Niko ne dolazi. Nobody is coming.
Ništa ne radim. I am doing nothing.
Nigde ne idem. I am not going anywhere.

If ne is omitted, the sentence becomes ungrammatical:
❌ Niko dolazi. (incorrect)
✅ Niko ne dolazi. (correct)

Negation with Adjectives and Nouns

Negation can also apply to adjectives and nouns by placing ne directly before them. This is similar to English prefixes like un-, non-, or in-.

To nije tačno. That is not true.
Ona nije učiteljica. She is not a teacher.
To nije dobro. That is not good.
To nije istina. That is not the truth.

In these cases, the negative auxiliary nije negates the statement entirely.

Serbian also allows you to create negative adjectives and nouns by prefixing ne- to the word:
neprijatan unpleasant, nepoznat unknown, neprijatelj enemy, nepravda injustice.

To je neprijatno. That is unpleasant.
On je nepoznat čovek. He is an unknown man.

Negation in Imperatives

To make a negative command, Serbian uses nemoj followed by the infinitive or the particle da and a verb in the present tense.

Nemoj ići! Don’t go!
Nemojte pričati! Don’t speak!
Nemoj da zaboraviš! Don’t forget!

The form nemoj / nemojte comes from ne + moi (a variant of want), and it is the only acceptable way to make negative imperatives. Using ne directly with the verb is ungrammatical in commands.

Negation with “da” Clauses

When negation appears in clauses introduced by da, the particle ne still comes before the conjugated verb:

Mislim da ne zna. I think he doesn’t know.
Želim da ne padne kiša. I hope it doesn’t rain.
Rekla je da ne dolazi. She said she isn’t coming.

In complex sentences, the position of ne never changes—it always precedes the verb it negates.

Polite or Softened Negation

In conversation, speakers often soften negation by adding adverbs like baš, još, više, or možda, which make the statement less direct or more polite.

Ne baš. Not really.
Ne još. Not yet.
Ne više. No longer.
Ne znam tačno. I’m not sure exactly.

This kind of nuanced negation adds tone and subtlety to everyday communication.

Elliptical Negation and Idiomatic Usage

In informal Serbian, short negative responses can omit the verb entirely:
Ne. No.
Nikako. Absolutely not.
Nipošto. By no means.

These forms often express emotion or emphasis more strongly than a full sentence.

Idiomatic expressions also frequently use negation for rhetorical or humorous effect:
Nema šanse! No way!
Ne dolazi u obzir! Out of the question!
Nema veze. It doesn’t matter.
Nema problema. No problem.

In such phrases, nema literally means there is no, but the expressions have become fixed idioms conveying reassurance or refusal.

IMPERATIVES IN SERBIAN

The imperative mood in Serbian, known as imperativ, is used to give commands, instructions, advice, or invitations. It is the grammatical form that expresses direct requests, orders, or encouragement, corresponding to the English do, go, come, sit down, etc. Because Serbian is a highly inflected language, the imperative is formed by modifying the verb stem and adding specific endings that indicate person and number.

In everyday communication, the imperative is one of the most dynamic and emotionally expressive parts of Serbian grammar. It can sound polite, neutral, or forceful depending on the choice of words, tone, and the addition of particles such as molim te please, nemoj don’t, or hajde come on / let’s.

Formation of the Imperative

The imperative is formed from the present tense stem of a verb, with specific endings that indicate the person and number of the command. The imperative exists for second person singular (you), second person plural (you all or formal you), and first person plural (we).

The singular and plural forms correspond to the subject pronouns ti, vi, and mi, but these pronouns are usually omitted, since the verb ending already shows who is being addressed.

Second Person Singular

To form the second person singular, take the third person plural form of the verb in the present tense and remove -u or -e, then add the ending -i or -j depending on the verb group.

raditi to work → rade → radi! work!
pisati to write → pišu → piši! write!
čuti to hear → čuju → čuj! listen!
kupiti to buy → kupe → kupi! buy!

Second Person Plural

The plural form is created by adding -te to the singular imperative form. This is used both for addressing several people and for polite speech when addressing one person formally.

radi! work! → radite! work (you all) / please work!
piši! write! → pišite! write (you all) / please write!

First Person Plural

The first person plural form expresses a suggestion or invitation equivalent to English let’s. It is formed by adding -mo to the singular imperative form.

radimo! let’s work!
idemo! let’s go!
pišimo! let’s write!
pevajmo! let’s sing!

This form is very common in everyday speech, especially in friendly or collaborative contexts.

Imperative of Irregular Verbs

Some verbs form their imperatives irregularly. The most frequent irregular verbs are:

biti to be → budi! / budite! be!
doći to come → dođi! / dođite! come!
otići to go away → idi! / idite! go!
reći to say / tell → reci! / recite! say!
jesti to eat → jed(i)! / jedite! eat!

Examples in context:
Budi pažljiv! Be careful!
Dođite večeras! Come tonight!
Idi kući! Go home!
Reci mi istinu! Tell me the truth!

Negative Imperatives

To form a negative command in Serbian, the auxiliary verb nemoj (for singular) or nemojte (for plural/formal) is used, followed by the infinitive or by da and a verb in the present tense.

Nemoj ići! Don’t go!
Nemojte kasniti! Don’t be late!
Nemoj da plačeš! Don’t cry!
Nemojte da zaboravite! Don’t forget!

The form ne + verb is not used for negative imperatives in Serbian; the only correct form is nemoj / nemojte + infinitive or da + present tense.

For softer or more polite negation, speakers often combine nemoj with adverbs such as molim te please, sad now, or više anymore:
Nemoj, molim te, da se ljutiš. Please, don’t be angry.
Nemoj više da vičeš. Don’t shout anymore.

Reflexive Verbs in the Imperative

Reflexive verbs use the particle se, which follows the imperative form.

Smej se! Laugh!
Obuci se! Get dressed!
Opusti se! Relax!
Umij se! Wash your face!

In the plural or formal form:
Smejte se! Laugh!
Opustite se! Relax!

When using the negative form, se follows nemoj and precedes da:
Nemoj da se nerviraš. Don’t get upset.
Nemojte da se svađate. Don’t argue.

Politeness and Tone in the Imperative

In Serbian, tone and choice of words greatly influence how an imperative sounds. The bare imperative can sound neutral or direct, while adding certain expressions makes it polite or gentle.

Daj mi knjigu. Give me the book. (neutral or commanding)
Dajte mi, molim vas, knjigu. Please give me the book. (polite)

The plural or formal form (vi-form) is used when addressing strangers, elders, or in formal situations:
Sedite, molim vas. Please sit down.
Uđite. Come in.

Adding words such as molim te please (informal) or molim vas please (formal) softens the command and shows respect.

Imperatives in Suggestions and Encouragement

The imperative is not used only for commands; it also serves to invite or encourage someone to do something. In these cases, it often appears with hajde or ajde, meaning come on / let’s.

Hajde da idemo! Let’s go!
Ajde, sedi! Come on, sit down!
Hajde da vidimo! Let’s see!
Ajde, pokušaj ponovo! Come on, try again!

In such sentences, da is used with a verb in the present tense, forming a softer and more conversational type of imperative.

Imperative in Written Instructions and Recipes

The imperative is also used in impersonal instructions such as manuals, signs, or recipes.

Otvorite vrata. Open the door.
Pritisnite dugme. Press the button.
Dodajte so i promešajte. Add salt and stir.
Čuvati na hladnom mestu. Keep in a cool place.

This use corresponds to English instructions like Mix, Add, or Turn off, and it is common in both formal and informal contexts.

Imperative in Everyday Expressions and Idioms

Many everyday Serbian expressions and idioms use imperatives as fixed forms. These often convey emotion, irony, or emphasis:

Ćuti! Be quiet!
Pazi! Watch out!
Slušaj! Listen!
Veruj mi! Believe me!
Zamisli! Imagine!
Zaboravi! Forget it!

In emotional contexts, intonation and stress give the imperative its full force—soft when expressing care, sharp when expressing authority.

Imperative for Giving Advice or Wishes

The imperative can also express advice, encouragement, or good wishes, rather than direct orders.

Pazi na sebe! Take care of yourself!
Uživaj! Enjoy!
Spavaj dobro! Sleep well!
Budi srećan! Be happy!
Budi hrabar! Be brave!

When addressing more than one person:
Uživajte! Enjoy!
Budite pažljivi! Be careful!

Such forms are common in both spoken and written Serbian, particularly in greetings, farewells, and expressions of goodwill.

The Use of “da” Constructions as Soft Imperatives

Serbian frequently uses the conjunction da followed by a verb in the present tense as a polite or softened imperative. Instead of giving a direct order, this form makes the request sound more like a suggestion or proposal.

Da odemo sada? Shall we go now?
Da sedneš ovde. Why don’t you sit here.
Da počnemo? Shall we start?

This structure is extremely common in everyday speech, especially in polite or cautious conversation.

Intonation and Emotional Force

In Serbian, the imperative’s tone depends heavily on intonation. A falling tone sounds firm and commanding:
Dođi odmah! Come right now!

A rising or softer tone, on the other hand, sounds friendly or encouraging:
Dođi, molim te. Please come.

Stress and pitch can completely change the emotional color of an imperative, so learners should pay attention to spoken models.

MODAL VERBS IN SERBIAN

Modal verbs in Serbian, known as modalni glagoli, are verbs that express necessity, ability, permission, intention, or obligation. They modify the meaning of the main verb in the sentence and show the speaker’s attitude toward the action. Just like in English with verbs such as can, must, should, and want to, Serbian modal verbs combine with another verb to indicate possibility, desire, or compulsion.

Modal verbs in Serbian are conjugated in the present, past, and future tenses like regular verbs, but the verb that follows them is always in the infinitive or in the da + present tense form. Mastering modal verbs is essential because they appear constantly in everyday speech and are used to express everything from polite requests to strong obligations.

The main Serbian modal verbs are moći can / to be able to, morati must / to have to, hteti to want, želeti to wish / to want, smeti to be allowed / to dare, and trebati to need / should.

The Verb moći – To Be Able To / Can

Moći expresses ability, possibility, or permission. It corresponds to the English can or to be able to. It is an irregular verb and changes its stem in conjugation.

Ja mogu. I can.
Ti možeš. You can.
On / ona / ono može. He / she / it can.
Mi možemo. We can.
Vi možete. You can (plural or formal).
Oni mogu. They can.

Moći is followed by either an infinitive or a da + present clause:

Mogu plivati. I can swim.
Možeš da dođeš. You can come.
Ne mogu da verujem. I can’t believe it.

In negative sentences, ne stands before the verb:
Ne mogu da spavam. I can’t sleep.
Ne možeš to uraditi. You can’t do that.

The verb moći is highly flexible and used for both physical and mental abilities, as well as for granting or denying permission.

The Verb morati – Must / Have To

Morati expresses necessity, obligation, or strong compulsion. It corresponds to English must or have to. Unlike moći, it is a regular verb.

Ja moram. I must / I have to.
Ti moraš. You must / you have to.
On mora. He must.
Mi moramo. We must.
Vi morate. You must (plural or formal).
Oni moraju. They must.

Morati is followed by da + present tense or by the infinitive (less common in modern speech):

Moram da radim. I have to work.
Moraš da ideš kući. You must go home.
Moramo da završimo posao. We have to finish the work.

Negative forms express absence of necessity or prohibition:
Ne moram da idem. I don’t have to go.
Ne moraš to raditi. You don’t have to do that.

When spoken firmly, morati can express a moral or external obligation, while in softer tone, it can show an internal need or decision.

The Verb hteti – To Want

Hteti expresses desire, will, or intention and corresponds to English to want. It is an irregular verb, and in its short forms it also serves as an auxiliary for the future tense.

Full forms: hoću, hoćeš, hoće, hoćemo, hoćete, hoće.
Short forms (used in the future): ću, ćeš, će, ćemo, ćete, će.

As a modal verb meaning to want, hteti is followed by da + present tense:

Hoću da učim srpski. I want to learn Serbian.
Hoćeš da ideš sa mnom? Do you want to go with me?
Neću da čekam. I don’t want to wait.

Notice that neću (from ne + hoću) means I don’t want to or I refuse to.

When combined with politeness markers, hteti can sound softer and more courteous:
Hoćete li da sednete? Would you like to sit down?

The Verb želeti – To Wish / To Want

Želeti is similar in meaning to hteti, but it expresses a more polite, emotional, or formal wish. It can be translated as to wish, to would like to, or to desire.

Ja želim. I wish / I want.
Ti želiš. You wish.
On želi. He wishes.
Mi želimo. We wish.
Vi želite. You wish (plural or formal).
Oni žele. They wish.

It is used with da + present tense:
Želim da naučim srpski. I wish to learn Serbian.
Želiš da ideš u bioskop? Do you want to go to the cinema?
Ne želim da razgovaram o tome. I don’t want to talk about that.

Želeti is also often used in polite or emotional expressions of goodwill:
Želim ti sreću. I wish you happiness.
Želimo vam prijatan dan. We wish you a pleasant day.

While hteti often refers to an immediate intention, želeti has a more emotional or long-term connotation.

The Verb sm(e)ti – To Be Allowed To / To Dare

Smeti expresses permission or moral courage, equivalent to English to be allowed to or to dare. It is an irregular verb that combines both meanings depending on context.

Ja smem. I may / I dare.
Ti smeš. You may / you dare.
On sme. He may / he dares.
Mi smemo. We may.
Vi smete. You may (plural or formal).
Oni smeju. They may / they dare.

Examples:
Smeš da govoriš istinu. You may speak the truth.
Ne smeš to uraditi. You must not do that.
Smemo da uđemo? Are we allowed to come in?

In negative sentences, smeti often expresses prohibition:
Ne smeš da kasniš. You must not be late.
Ne smemo da zaboravimo. We must not forget.

Smeti combines naturally with da + present tense, and in colloquial speech, it often replaces the English can in contexts of moral permission.

The Verb trebati – To Need / Should

Trebati is one of the most flexible and frequently used modal verbs in Serbian. It expresses necessity, obligation, or recommendation, and its exact meaning depends on the structure of the sentence.

Trebati can be conjugated personally or impersonally:

Ja treba da idem. I should go.
Ti treba da učiš. You should study.
Oni treba da dođu. They should come.

However, the impersonal form is very common:
Treba da radim. I need to work.
Ne treba da se brineš. You shouldn’t worry.

In impersonal use, treba remains in the third person singular, regardless of who performs the action. This form is simple and widely used in conversation.

When combined with da + present, trebati expresses advice, moral duty, or soft obligation:
Treba da jedeš više voća. You should eat more fruit.
Ne treba da pušiš. You shouldn’t smoke.

In stronger or formal statements, the personal form adds emphasis:
Mi trebamo da pomognemo. We must help.

Combinations and Shades of Meaning

Modal verbs can also appear together or with adverbs to express fine shades of meaning. For instance:

Možda mogu da dođem. Maybe I can come.
Verovatno moram da radim. I probably have to work.
Neću da moram. I don’t want to have to.
Ne smem da kažem. I’m not allowed to say.

By combining modal verbs with adverbs like možda maybe, verovatno probably, and sigurno certainly, speakers adjust the degree of certainty or obligation in their statements.

Modal Verbs with “da” + Present Tense

The most common structure for modal verbs in modern Serbian is modal verb + da + present tense. This construction replaces the older infinitive form, especially in spoken language.

Mogu da idem. I can go.
Moram da radim. I have to work.
Hoću da spavam. I want to sleep.
Smeš da pitaš. You may ask.
Treba da ostaneš. You should stay.

While infinitive forms such as moram raditi or mogu učiti are grammatically correct, they sound more formal or regional, often used in written or Croatian-influenced Serbian.

Modal Verbs in the Past and Future

Modal verbs can also appear in the past or future tense, although moći, morati, and hteti are the most commonly used in these forms.

Mogao sam da dođem. I could come.
Morao sam da idem. I had to go.
Hteo sam da pomognem. I wanted to help.

In these cases, the auxiliary biti in the past tense combines with the past participle of the modal verb, while the dependent verb remains in the infinitive or da + present structure.

For future actions, modal verbs take the auxiliary ću, ćeš, etc.:
Moći ću da dođem sutra. I will be able to come tomorrow.
Moraću da radim. I will have to work.
Hteću da vidim rezultat. I will want to see the result.

Politeness and Softened Modal Forms

Modal verbs are essential for polite requests or suggestions. Serbian speakers often use them with molim te please or in conditional forms to soften tone:

Možeš li da mi pomogneš? Can you help me?
Da li biste mogli da pričekate? Could you wait, please?
Morali bismo da krenemo. We should get going.

The polite form biste mogli corresponds closely to English could you or would you mind.

PASSIVE IN SERBIAN

The passive voice in Serbian, known as trpni glagolski oblik, is used to emphasize the object of an action rather than the subject performing it. It corresponds to the English is done, was made, or will be built. In other words, the focus shifts from who does the action to what happens to something or someone.

Serbian forms the passive in several ways—most commonly with the auxiliary biti to be and the past participle of the main verb. Another way to express passive meaning is through reflexive constructions with se, which are especially common in spoken language.

The passive is used in both formal and neutral contexts, such as news reports, official documents, or when the agent of the action is unknown or unimportant.

Formation of the Passive Voice

The standard form of the passive is made up of:

biti (to be) in the appropriate tense + past participle of the main verb.

The auxiliary biti is conjugated to match the subject in person and number, while the participle agrees in gender and number with the noun that receives the action.

Knjiga je napisana. The book is written.
Pismo je poslato. The letter has been sent.
Prozor je otvoren. The window is open.

Here, je is the third person singular of biti, and the past participles napisana, poslato, and otvoren agree with the subject nouns knjiga, pismo, and prozor respectively.

If the agent is mentioned, it appears in the instrumental case, often introduced by od by:

Knjiga je napisana od poznatog pisca. The book was written by a famous writer.
Kuća je sagrađena od radnika. The house was built by workers.

However, in most sentences, the performer of the action is omitted when it is obvious or irrelevant.

Agreement in Gender and Number

In the passive voice, the participle functions as an adjective and must agree with the subject in gender and number.

Film je snimljen. The film was filmed.
Pesma je otpevana. The song was sung.
Pisma su poslata. The letters were sent.
Vrata su zatvorena. The doors are closed.

This agreement helps make the passive clear and precise, especially when the subject is not human or when no agent is mentioned.

Passive in Different Tenses

The passive can be formed in various tenses, depending on the tense of biti.

Present tense:
Pismo je napisano. The letter is written.

Past tense:
Pismo je bilo napisano. The letter was written.

Future tense:
Pismo će biti napisano. The letter will be written.

The participle itself never changes form to mark tense—it always stays in the same gendered, adjectival form. The auxiliary biti carries the tense of the sentence.

Passive with Reflexive “se”

A very common and natural way to express the passive in Serbian is through reflexive constructions using the particle se. This form is called the reflexive passive and is used much more frequently in spoken language than the analytical biti + participle structure.

In this construction, the verb remains in the active voice, but the reflexive se shifts the focus away from the agent, giving the sentence a passive meaning.

Ovde se prodaju knjige. Books are sold here.
U školi se uči engleski. English is taught at school.
Gradi se nova bolnica. A new hospital is being built.

This construction corresponds to English something is being done and is preferred for describing general or habitual processes rather than completed actions.

Differences Between “biti + participle” and “se” Passive

While both forms express passive meaning, their usage differs in nuance and register.

• Biti + participle is used when emphasizing the result or state after an action. It is typical in written or formal contexts.
  Most je sagrađen. The bridge was built.

• Se + verb is used when emphasizing the ongoing or general action, without focusing on the result. It sounds more neutral and natural in conversation.
  Most se gradi. The bridge is being built.

The reflexive form is especially common when the agent is unknown or irrelevant:
U ovoj fabrici se proizvodi čokolada. Chocolate is produced in this factory.

Passive with “biti” in Compound Tenses

When forming the passive in past or future tenses, biti acts as an auxiliary twice—once as part of the tense and once as part of the passive construction.

For example, in the past perfect, we combine biti in the past with the participle of the main verb:

Kuća je bila izgrađena. The house had been built.
Pismo je bilo napisano na vreme. The letter had been written on time.

In the future tense, we use će + biti + participle:
Zadatak će biti urađen sutra. The task will be done tomorrow.

Although grammatically possible, such compound forms are often replaced by simpler alternatives or the reflexive construction in modern speech.

Passive and the Instrumental Case

When the doer of the action (the agent) is mentioned in a passive sentence, Serbian uses the instrumental case after the preposition od by.

Projekat je urađen od studenata. The project was done by students.
Pismo je napisano od mog prijatelja. The letter was written by my friend.

However, this is optional and usually omitted unless the identity of the agent adds important information.

Passive Participles as Adjectives

Past participles used in the passive can also function as adjectives to describe a state or quality.

Zatvorena vrata closed door
Slomljena čaša broken glass
Ugašen motor turned-off engine
Napisan članak written article

In these cases, the participle loses its purely verbal function and behaves like a regular adjective, agreeing in gender and number with the noun it describes.

Vrata su zatvorena. The door is closed.
Prozor je otvoren. The window is open.

Here, the sentence could be interpreted as either a true passive (the door has been closed) or a stative description (the door is in a closed state). The distinction depends on context.

Passive in Questions and Negation

Passive constructions can appear in questions and negative sentences without changing structure.

Da li je pesma napisana? Was the song written?
Ko je pesma napisana od strane? By whom was the song written?
Pesma nije napisana. The song was not written.
Ne gradi se više fabrika. The factory is no longer being built.

Negation is always formed by placing ne before the auxiliary biti or before the main verb in reflexive constructions.

Passive in Everyday Speech

Although the biti + participle structure is grammatically correct and used in writing or formal contexts, in everyday Serbian the se construction dominates. It sounds more natural and spontaneous.

For example:
U ovoj ulici se ne puši. Smoking is not allowed on this street.
Ovde se pravi najbolja kafa. The best coffee is made here.

Because Serbian is flexible with word order, se usually follows the verb but can move depending on emphasis:
Prodaju se knjige. Books are sold.
Knjige se prodaju. The books are being sold.

Both are grammatically correct, and the difference lies in focus.

Passive Equivalents Without “Biti”

Serbian also has ways to express passive meaning without using biti or se directly, through impersonal constructions or context.

For example:
Treba popraviti auto. The car needs to be repaired.
Mora se uraditi. It must be done.
Ne može se izbeći. It cannot be avoided.

These expressions combine modal verbs like morati, moći, or trebati with passive or reflexive forms, creating neutral and idiomatic structures widely used in everyday communication.

The Difference Between Active and Passive

The active voice focuses on the doer of the action:
Arhitekta gradi most. The architect is building the bridge.

The passive focuses on the receiver of the action:
Most je građen od strane arhitekte. The bridge is being built by the architect.
Most se gradi. The bridge is being built.

The passive is often preferred when the agent is unknown, unimportant, or when the emphasis should be on the process or result.

Style and Frequency

In formal writing—newspapers, legal texts, and academic language—the biti + participle passive is common because it sounds objective and impersonal.

Zakon je usvojen. The law has been adopted.
Predlog je odobren. The proposal has been approved.

In spoken language, however, Serbians tend to prefer the se form:
Zakon se usvaja. The law is being adopted.
Predlog se odobrava. The proposal is being approved.

Thus, the choice of passive form depends largely on tone, context, and level of formality.

WORD ORDER IN SERBIAN

Word order in Serbian, known as redosled reči, is far more flexible than in English. Because Serbian is an inflected language—where nouns, pronouns, and adjectives change their endings to indicate grammatical roles—the position of words in a sentence does not determine their function as strictly as it does in English. Instead, word order in Serbian is primarily used to express emphasis, rhythm, and style, rather than grammatical correctness.

While the neutral word order is generally Subject – Verb – Object (SVO), many other arrangements are possible depending on what the speaker wants to highlight. Understanding how and why the word order changes is crucial for mastering the natural flow and expressive nuance of Serbian sentences.

Neutral Word Order: Subject – Verb – Object

The neutral, or default, word order in Serbian places the subject first, followed by the verb, and then the object, much like in English. This structure is used in most statements and neutral descriptions where no special emphasis is needed.

Marko jede jabuku. Marko is eating an apple.
Ana čita knjigu. Ana is reading a book.
Učitelj objašnjava lekciju. The teacher is explaining the lesson.

This order is the most common in written texts, reports, and objective statements because it presents information clearly and straightforwardly.

However, because of Serbian’s grammatical flexibility, even when words are rearranged, the meaning remains the same—the only thing that changes is which element of the sentence is emphasized.

Inverted Word Order for Emphasis

When the word order deviates from the neutral pattern, it usually indicates emphasis or contrast. Serbian speakers often move certain words to the beginning or end of a sentence to highlight them.

For example, the sentence Marko jede jabuku Marko is eating an apple can appear in several forms:

Jabuku jede Marko. It’s Marko who is eating the apple. (emphasis on Marko)
Marko jabuku jede. Marko is eating the apple (and nothing else). (emphasis on jabuku)
Jede Marko jabuku. Marko is eating an apple. (poetic or stylistic inversion)

In all these cases, the meaning remains clear because of noun endings (jabuku being in the accusative case), but the focus of the sentence shifts depending on the position of each word.

This kind of flexibility allows speakers to naturally stress important information without relying solely on tone or intonation.

Topic–Comment Structure

Serbian, like many Slavic languages, often follows a topic–comment structure rather than a fixed word order. The topic is what the sentence is about—the known or given information—while the comment is the new or important information being communicated.

Knjigu sam pročitao. I read the book.
Here, knjigu the book is moved to the front because it is the topic, perhaps already known from context, while sam pročitao I read provides the new information.

This type of fronting (moving the object before the verb) is extremely common in spoken Serbian and helps structure the conversation around familiar ideas.

For instance:
Film sam već gledao. I’ve already watched the movie.
Tebe sam čekao. I was waiting for you.
Novine sam kupio jutros. I bought the newspapers this morning.

These examples show that the object can precede the verb when the speaker wants to emphasize it as the main topic.

Verb Position and Clitics

One of the most distinctive features of Serbian word order is the position of clitics—short, unstressed words that cannot stand alone. These include auxiliary verbs (sam, si, je, smo, ste, su), reflexive particles (se), and short object pronouns (mi, ti, mu, je, ga, ih, im).

Clitics always appear in the second position in a sentence or clause, regardless of where the other words go. This rule is called Wackernagel’s law in linguistics and is essential in Serbian syntax.

Ja sam video Petra. I saw Petar.
Petra sam video. I saw Petar.
Video sam Petra. I saw Petar.

In all three versions, sam remains in second position, immediately after the first meaningful word or phrase.

If an adverb or conjunction begins the sentence, the clitic follows it:
Danas sam radio. I worked today.
Ali sam ga video. But I saw him.

Clitics never start a sentence and never appear at the end. Their correct placement is one of the key skills that make speech sound natural to native speakers.

Object Position

Serbian allows both preverbal (before the verb) and postverbal (after the verb) placement of the object, depending on emphasis, information structure, or rhythm.

Vidim te. I see you.
Te vidim. I do see you. (emphatic, poetic, or stylistic)

When the object is a pronoun, it often moves before the verb, especially when combined with clitics:
Dao sam ti knjigu. I gave you the book.
Ti sam dao knjigu. I gave you the book (not someone else).

Objects that are long or complex usually follow the verb, while short or familiar ones may precede it.

Questions and Word Order

In questions, the word order in Serbian is flexible, but the question word (such as ko, šta, gde, kada, zašto) usually comes first, followed by the verb or clitic cluster.

Ko te je video? Who saw you?
Šta si kupio? What did you buy?
Gde ste bili? Where were you?
Zašto se plašiš? Why are you afraid?

When no question word is used (yes/no questions), the order of the sentence remains similar to that of a statement, but the tone rises at the end:

Jesi li video Petra? Did you see Petar?
Da li si gladan? Are you hungry?

The li particle follows the verb or auxiliary and signals that a question is being asked.

Adverbs and Their Placement

Adverbs in Serbian can appear in several positions within a sentence, depending on what they modify and what the speaker wants to emphasize.

Uvek radim ujutru. I always work in the morning.
Radim uvek ujutru. I work always in the morning (slightly emphatic).
Ujutru uvek radim. In the morning, I always work.

The meaning remains the same, but the focus changes. Placing an adverb at the beginning gives it prominence, while keeping it after the verb creates a more neutral tone.

In compound tenses, adverbs usually appear between the auxiliary and the main verb:
Sam često putovao. I have often traveled.
Nismo još završili. We haven’t finished yet.

Negation and Word Order

In negative sentences, the negative particle ne always precedes the verb, even when the sentence is inverted for emphasis.

Ne radim danas. I’m not working today.
Danas ne radim. Today I’m not working.
Ne mogu da spavam. I can’t sleep.
Nikad ne dolazi na vreme. He never comes on time.

When a clitic is present, ne stays before it:
Ne sam ga video. → incorrect
Nisam ga video. I didn’t see him. (correct contraction of ne + sam)

This fixed position of ne ensures clarity even when other elements of the sentence move around.

Word Order and Focus

Serbian speakers frequently change word order to highlight the focus of a sentence—what is new, important, or emotionally charged.

On mi je dao knjigu. He gave me the book.
Meni je on dao knjigu. It was to me that he gave the book (not to someone else).
On je meni dao knjigu. He gave the book to me (emphasizing both the subject and the object).

Similarly, by moving words to the front or end, the speaker can express surprise, contrast, or emotion:
To nisam očekivao. I didn’t expect that.
Nikad to nisam video. I have never seen that.

The final position in a sentence often carries strong emphasis, similar to stress in English.

Word Order in Subordinate Clauses

In subordinate clauses introduced by da, kada, ako, jer, or other conjunctions, the word order remains flexible but usually follows the pattern subject + clitics + verb + complements.

Znam da si umoran. I know that you are tired.
Verujem da će doći. I believe that he will come.
Kad sam stigao, on je već otišao. When I arrived, he had already left.

Even within subordinate clauses, clitics must occupy the second position:
Mislim da sam ga video. I think I saw him.
Rekla je da se vraća. She said that she is coming back.

Word Order in Imperatives

In imperative sentences, word order is generally verb + object, but it can vary for emphasis:

Daj mi knjigu! Give me the book!
Mi daj knjigu! Give the book to me! (emphatic)

When nemoj is used for negation, the structure becomes nemoj / nemojte + da + verb:
Nemoj da kasniš! Don’t be late!
Nemojte da zaboravite! Don’t forget!

In all these forms, the word order reinforces tone and urgency rather than altering the meaning.

Word Order and Style

Stylistically, Serbian uses flexible word order for literary and poetic effect. Writers and poets often invert sentences to achieve rhythm or emphasis:

Ide zima. Winter is coming.
Sija sunce. The sun shines.
Govori tišina. Silence speaks.

Such inversions sound natural and expressive because the listener or reader can easily identify grammatical roles through case endings rather than word position.

CONJUNCIONS IN SERBIAN

Conjunctions in Serbian, known as veznici, are words that connect other words, phrases, or clauses. They serve to show relationships between ideas, actions, or descriptions, giving the sentence coherence and logical flow. Conjunctions are indispensable in Serbian grammar because they allow speakers to express cause and effect, contrast, condition, sequence, choice, and addition.

Serbian conjunctions function similarly to English and, but, because, if, although, yet they often have more flexible placement and a richer set of nuances. They can connect words within a sentence (coordinating conjunctions) or whole sentences (subordinating conjunctions).

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions, or naporedni veznici, connect words, phrases, or independent clauses that are grammatically equal. They do not change the structure of the sentence but link elements that share the same grammatical role.

The most common coordinating conjunctions in Serbian are i, a, ali, ili, pa, te, and ni.

I – And

I is the most basic conjunction, used to connect similar or related ideas. It can link nouns, adjectives, verbs, or entire clauses.

Ana i Marko. Ana and Marko.
Kupio sam hleb i mleko. I bought bread and milk.
On peva i svira. He sings and plays.
Volim i tebe i njega. I love both you and him.

When i is repeated before each element, it adds emphasis and means both... and....

A – And / But / While

The conjunction a can mean and or but, depending on context. It usually contrasts two ideas mildly or introduces a new topic.

Ja radim, a on se odmara. I work, and he is resting.
Ona je mlada, a pametna. She is young but smart.
Bio je mrak, a mi smo išli dalje. It was dark, and we kept going.

Unlike ali, which expresses a stronger contrast, a often carries a neutral or descriptive contrast, similar to while or whereas.

Ali – But

Ali introduces a clear contrast or opposition, much like English but.

Hteo sam da dođem, ali nisam mogao. I wanted to come, but I couldn’t.
Sunce sija, ali je hladno. The sun is shining, but it’s cold.
On je dobar, ali strog. He is kind but strict.

When used at the start of a sentence, ali introduces a contrasting idea or objection:
Ali to nije tačno. But that isn’t true.

Ili – Or

Ili expresses alternatives, choices, or possibilities. It can link words or clauses, and when repeated, it emphasizes the exclusive nature of the choice.

Kupi jabuke ili kruške. Buy apples or pears.
Hoćeš li čaj ili kafu? Do you want tea or coffee?
Ili ti, ili ja. Either you or me.

When used multiple times in a sentence, ili strengthens the contrast between options.

Ni – Nor / Neither

Ni is the negative counterpart of i, used in negative sentences to mean nor or neither. It usually appears with verbs negated by ne.

Ne volim jabuke ni kruške. I like neither apples nor pears.
Nije došao ni Petar ni Jovan. Neither Petar nor Jovan came.
Neću ni da čujem! I don’t even want to hear!

When repeated, ni... ni... corresponds to neither... nor....

Pa – And / So / Then

Pa connects sentences or clauses that follow logically or chronologically. It can express continuation, consequence, or slight contrast.

Došao je pa seo. He came and sat down.
Učio sam ceo dan, pa sam umoran. I studied all day, so I’m tired.
Razmisli pa odluči. Think and then decide.

It often appears in storytelling or informal speech, giving a sense of sequence and narrative flow.

Te – And / As Well

Te functions similarly to i, but it sounds more literary or formal. It is often used in narratives, official documents, or poetic expressions.

Otvorio je vrata te ušao. He opened the door and entered.
Došli su te seli. They arrived and sat down.
Krenuli smo te stigli kasno. We set off and arrived late.

Although rarely used in casual speech today, te enriches the stylistic variety of written Serbian.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions, or zavisni veznici, connect a main clause and a subordinate clause—one that depends on the other for meaning. These conjunctions indicate relationships such as cause, condition, time, purpose, and contrast.

Common subordinating conjunctions include da, jer, ako, kada, dok, pošto, iako, mada, pre nego što, and kako.

Da – That / To

Da is one of the most versatile conjunctions in Serbian. It can introduce subordinate clauses expressing statements, wishes, intentions, or indirect speech.

Znam da si umoran. I know that you are tired.
Hoću da idem kući. I want to go home.
Rekao je da dolazi sutra. He said that he’s coming tomorrow.

It is also used with verbs of wishing, fearing, or ordering:
Želim da uspeš. I wish you success.
Bojim se da ne zakasnim. I’m afraid I’ll be late.
Naredio je da svi dođu. He ordered that everyone come.

Jer – Because

Jer introduces a cause or reason and corresponds to English because.

Ostao sam kod kuće jer sam bio umoran. I stayed at home because I was tired.
Ne idem jer pada kiša. I’m not going because it’s raining.
Srećna je jer ga voli. She is happy because she loves him.

In speech, jer often carries a mild, explanatory tone.

Ako – If

Ako introduces a condition, much like English if. It is used in real or hypothetical situations.

Ako pada kiša, ostajemo kod kuće. If it rains, we stay home.
Ako dođe, javi mi. If he comes, let me know.
Ako budeš vredan, uspećeš. If you work hard, you’ll succeed.

The verb following ako can appear in the present or future tense depending on the situation’s likelihood.

Kada – When

Kada introduces a temporal clause, referring to the time when an action occurs.

Kada sam stigao, oni su već otišli. When I arrived, they had already left.
Kada budem slobodan, nazvaću te. When I’m free, I’ll call you.
Kada pada sneg, sve je belo. When it snows, everything is white.

It can also appear at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis:
Kada dođeš, biću srećan. When you come, I’ll be happy.

Dok – While / As / Until

Dok usually means while, describing simultaneous actions.

Dok čitam, ne volim da pričam. While I’m reading, I don’t like to talk.
Dok je on radio, mi smo se odmarali. While he was working, we were resting.

It can also mean until in certain contexts:
Sačekaj dok ne dođem. Wait until I come.

Pošto – After / Because

Pošto can mean after (indicating sequence) or because (indicating cause). The meaning depends on context.

Pošto sam završio, otišao sam kući. After I finished, I went home.
Pošto je padao sneg, nismo izašli. Because it was snowing, we didn’t go out.

When meaning after, pošto introduces a clause in the past tense.

Iako / Mada – Although / Even Though

Both iako and mada introduce a contrast between clauses, similar to although or even though.

Iako je umoran, radi dalje. Although he’s tired, he keeps working.
Mada je hladno, idemo napolje. Even though it’s cold, we’re going outside.
Iako ga poznajem, ne verujem mu. Although I know him, I don’t trust him.

These conjunctions express concession—the idea that something happens despite an obstacle.

Pre nego što – Before

Pre nego što introduces an action that happens before another. It is always followed by a clause with a conjugated verb.

Operi ruke pre nego što jedeš. Wash your hands before you eat.
Otišao je pre nego što sam stigao. He left before I arrived.

It can also be shortened in casual speech to pre nego, but the full form is more standard.

Kako – How / As

Kako connects clauses describing manner, means, or simultaneity.

Uradio sam kako si rekao. I did as you said.
Kako je vreme prolazilo, sve je bilo lakše. As time passed, everything became easier.

In some expressions, kako combines with other words to form idiomatic phrases:
Kako god hoćeš. However you want.
Kako-tako. So-so / somehow.

Correlative Conjunctions

Serbian also uses pairs of conjunctions, called parni veznici, to connect two balanced or corresponding elements.

Common examples include:
i... i... both... and...
ni... ni... neither... nor...
ili... ili... either... or...
bilo... bilo... whether... or...

I Petar i Marko su došli. Both Petar and Marko came.
Ni ja ni ti ne znamo. Neither you nor I know.
Ili ostani, ili idi. Either stay or go.

These pairs provide clarity and symmetry, especially in spoken or persuasive language.

Conjunctions and Word Order

In sentences with conjunctions, Serbian maintains flexible word order, but clitics still occupy the second position in each clause.

Znam da si došao. I know that you came.
Ako ga vidiš, reci mu. If you see him, tell him.
Bio sam umoran, ali sam nastavio. I was tired, but I continued.

Each clause behaves like a mini-sentence, with its own grammatical structure, even when connected by conjunctions.

RELATIVE CLAUSES IN SERBIAN

Relative clauses in Serbian, known as relativne rečenice, are subordinate clauses that describe or give additional information about a noun or pronoun in the main clause. They function much like relative clauses in English introduced by who, which, that, whose, or where. In Serbian, these clauses are introduced by the relative pronoun koji, which changes form depending on gender, number, and case.

Relative clauses are an essential part of Serbian syntax, allowing speakers to connect ideas smoothly and avoid repetition. They provide detail, identification, or clarification about the person or thing being discussed, making the sentence more descriptive and precise.

Structure of Relative Clauses

A relative clause in Serbian is made up of a relative pronoun and a subordinate clause that depends on a noun in the main sentence. The relative pronoun refers to that noun (called the antecedent) and agrees with it in gender and number, but takes its case from its grammatical role within the subordinate clause.

Čovek koji stoji tamo je moj otac. The man who is standing there is my father.
Knjiga koju čitam je zanimljiva. The book that I’m reading is interesting.
Studenti koji rade naporno položiće ispit. The students who work hard will pass the exam.

Here, koji, koju, and koji are relative pronouns that agree with čovek (masculine singular), knjiga (feminine singular), and studenti (masculine plural) respectively.

The Relative Pronoun “koji”

The pronoun koji is the main tool for forming relative clauses in Serbian. It means who, which, or that, and it changes its ending depending on gender, number, and case.

• Masculine singular: koji

• Feminine singular: koja

• Neuter singular: koje

• Plural (all genders): koji, koje, koja, depending on the noun

The form also changes according to the grammatical role in the clause:
koji (subject), koga (object, masculine), kojeg / kojoj / kojima (various cases).

Examples:
Dečak koji trči je moj brat. The boy who is running is my brother.
Devojka koju poznajem živi u Beogradu. The girl whom I know lives in Belgrade.
Auto kojim putujem je nov. The car in which I’m traveling is new.

The position of koji corresponds closely to English relative pronouns, but its form changes more flexibly according to case.

Agreement Between the Noun and the Relative Pronoun

The relative pronoun must agree in gender and number with the noun it refers to, but its case depends on its function in the relative clause, not in the main clause.

Čovek koji govori je profesor. The man who is speaking is a professor.
(koji is masculine singular, the subject of the relative clause)

Čoveka kog poznajem sam sreo juče. I met the man whom I know yesterday.
(kog is masculine singular accusative, the object of the relative clause)

Devojčici kojoj sam pomogao zahvalila mi se. The girl whom I helped thanked me.
(kojoj is feminine singular dative)

This agreement and case structure make relative clauses in Serbian precise and logical, though learners must pay attention to gender and declension.

Omitting the Relative Pronoun

In Serbian, unlike English, the relative pronoun koji cannot usually be omitted. English might say the book I’m reading, but Serbian must say knjiga koju čitam. The pronoun is grammatically required and cannot be dropped.

Correct: Čovek koga sam video. The man whom I saw.
Incorrect: Čovek sam video. (ungrammatical)

Even though the meaning is clear, omitting koji would break the grammatical structure of the sentence.

Relative Clauses with Prepositions

When a preposition is required in the relative clause, it precedes the appropriate form of koji. The preposition is determined by the verb or expression used in the clause.

Grad u kojem živim je lep. The city in which I live is beautiful.
Film o kojem pričamo je zanimljiv. The movie we are talking about is interesting.
Prijatelj sa kojim radim je iz Srbije. The friend I work with is from Serbia.

In everyday speech, prepositions are sometimes separated from koji, and the pronoun moves toward the beginning of the clause:
Grad koji živim u njemu je lep. (nonstandard but occasionally heard informally)

However, the standard and grammatically correct order is preposition + koji.

Compound Relative Pronouns

Serbian also uses što and ko as relative pronouns in certain situations. They are more restricted and often more colloquial or stylistically marked.

Što – That / Which

Što is commonly used in spoken Serbian, particularly to replace koji when referring to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. It often means that or which.

Sve što kažeš je istina. Everything that you say is true.
Ne razumem to što radiš. I don’t understand what you’re doing.
Ono što volim je mir. What I love is peace.

In such sentences, što introduces a subordinate clause that functions as a noun phrase, much like English what or that which.

Ko – Who

Ko can sometimes act as a relative pronoun meaning who, but it is used mainly in indefinite or general statements.

Ko radi, imaće uspeha. Who works will succeed.
Ko zna, možda dođe sutra. Who knows, maybe he’ll come tomorrow.

These constructions sound proverbial or abstract and are common in sayings and general truths.

Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

Serbian distinguishes between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses, though the distinction is made through intonation and punctuation rather than by word form.

A restrictive clause defines which person or thing we are talking about.
Čovek koji sedi tamo je doktor. The man who is sitting there is a doctor.
(Only the man sitting there is meant.)

A non-restrictive clause simply adds extra information about a known person or thing:
Moj brat, koji živi u Novom Sadu, studira medicinu. My brother, who lives in Novi Sad, studies medicine.
(The speaker has one brother, and the clause adds more detail about him.)

In writing, commas indicate non-restrictive clauses; in speech, a pause and intonation mark the difference.

Relative Clauses with Possession

To express possession, Serbian uses the genitive form of koji: čiji, meaning whose.

Čovek čiji sin studira je moj prijatelj. The man whose son studies is my friend.
Devojka čija je torba crvena je nova učenica. The girl whose bag is red is the new student.
Kuća čiji su prozori plavi nalazi se pored reke. The house whose windows are blue is by the river.

The pronoun čiji agrees in gender and number with the possessed noun (sin, torba, prozori), not with the possessor (čovek, devojka, kuća).

Relative Clauses Referring to Time and Place

When referring to time or place, Serbian often uses kad (when) and gde (where) as relative words. These function like when and where in English and connect the subordinate clause naturally.

Dan kad smo se upoznali bio je poseban. The day when we met was special.
Mesto gde smo odrasli je prelepo. The place where we grew up is beautiful.
Trenutak kad sam shvatio bio je važan. The moment when I understood was important.

Alternatively, more formal forms with u kojem or na kojem can be used:
Dan u kojem smo se upoznali. The day in which we met.
Mesto na kojem smo odrasli. The place at which we grew up.

Both are grammatically correct; the first is more conversational, the second more formal.

Relative Clauses and Verb Tense

The tense of the verb in a relative clause follows normal Serbian tense rules and is determined by meaning rather than by the tense of the main clause.

Znam čoveka koji je ovde radio. I know the man who worked here.
Znam čoveka koji radi ovde. I know the man who works here.
Znam čoveka koji će raditi ovde. I know the man who will work here.

Each verb tense creates a different temporal relationship between the main and subordinate clauses, just as in English.

Relative Clauses in Negative Sentences

Negation in relative clauses follows standard Serbian rules: the negative particle ne appears before the verb, and any other negative pronouns or adverbs reinforce the negation.

Ne verujem ljudima koji ne govore istinu. I don’t trust people who don’t tell the truth.
Nema ničega što ne možeš uraditi. There is nothing you can’t do.
To je osoba koja se nikad ne žali. That’s a person who never complains.

Stylistic Use of Relative Clauses

In formal writing and literature, relative clauses are used to add complexity and elegance to sentence structure. Writers often choose koji or čiji forms for precision, while spoken Serbian prefers shorter or što-based constructions for simplicity.

Formal:
Članak koji je objavljen u časopisu izazvao je pažnju javnosti. The article that was published in the journal attracted public attention.

Informal:
Članak što su ga objavili bio je zanimljiv. The article they published was interesting.

Both are grammatically correct, but the first sounds formal, and the second colloquial.

QUESTIONS IN SERBIAN

Forming questions in Serbian, or pitanja, is a fundamental part of communication. Questions in Serbian can be yes/no questions or information questions (also called wh-questions in English). Unlike English, Serbian does not rely heavily on word order to form questions because the language’s inflected nature allows flexible structure. Instead, questions are usually formed through intonation, particles such as li or da li, and question words like ko, šta, gde, kada, zašto, and others.

Learning how questions work in Serbian helps learners both to ask for specific information and to recognize the subtle nuances of tone, formality, and emphasis that Serbians use in everyday conversation.

Yes/No Questions

Yes/no questions—those that expect a simple yes (da) or no (ne)—are the most basic type. In Serbian, they are typically formed in three ways: by changing intonation, by adding the particle li, or by using the phrase da li.

1. Intonation

The simplest way to form a yes/no question is by keeping the word order of a statement but raising the intonation at the end of the sentence.

Ideš u školu? Are you going to school?
Radiš danas? Are you working today?
Spavaš? Are you sleeping?

The only difference between the statement and the question is the rising tone. This form is informal and extremely common in spoken Serbian, especially among friends or family.

2. The Particle “li”

The particle li is used to form more neutral or formal yes/no questions. It immediately follows the verb or auxiliary verb, and the rest of the sentence follows the normal word order.

Radiš li danas? Are you working today?
Ideš li u školu? Are you going to school?
Znaš li ga? Do you know him?

When there is an auxiliary verb (as in compound tenses), li follows the auxiliary, not the main verb:
Jesi li video Mariju? Did you see Marija?
Hoćeš li doći sutra? Will you come tomorrow?
Bila li je srećna? Was she happy?

This structure is grammatically correct and appropriate for both written and spoken Serbian, sounding slightly more formal or polite than using only intonation.

3. The Expression “da li”

The most common and neutral way to form yes/no questions in modern Serbian is with da li, which can be used in all contexts—formal or informal, spoken or written.

Da li radiš danas? Are you working today?
Da li ideš u školu? Are you going to school?
Da li si video Mariju? Did you see Marija?
Da li ćeš doći sutra? Will you come tomorrow?

Da li is placed at the beginning of the question, and the word order that follows remains that of a regular statement.

Ti ideš u školu. You are going to school. → Da li ideš u školu? Are you going to school?

This makes da li the most reliable structure for beginners, as it works in all tenses and situations.

Negative Yes/No Questions

To form negative yes/no questions, ne is placed before the verb or auxiliary, just as in a negative statement.

Ne radiš danas? Aren’t you working today?
Ne ideš u školu? Aren’t you going to school?
Zar ne znaš? Don’t you know?

Alternatively, da li or li can also be used with negation:
Da li ne radiš danas? Are you not working today?
Ne radiš li danas? Aren’t you working today?

The form zar ne adds emotional emphasis or surprise, similar to Don’t you? or Isn’t it true that...? in English:
Zar ne voliš muziku? Don’t you like music?
Zar nisi gladan? Aren’t you hungry?

Information Questions

Information questions ask for specific details rather than a yes or no. They begin with question words (interrogative pronouns and adverbs), followed by a verb or auxiliary.

The main Serbian question words are:

• ko who

• šta what

• gde where

• kada when

• zašto why

• kako how

• koji which

• čiji whose

• koliko how much / how many

“Ko” – Who

Ko asks about people as the subject of a sentence.

Ko dolazi večeras? Who is coming tonight?
Ko radi u ovoj firmi? Who works in this company?
Ko te je pozvao? Who invited you?

When “who” is the object of the action, the form koga (accusative) or komu / kome (dative) is used:
Koga voliš? Whom do you love?
Kome si dao knjigu? To whom did you give the book?

“Šta” – What

Šta is used to ask about things, objects, or actions.

Šta radiš? What are you doing?
Šta želiš da kupiš? What do you want to buy?
Šta si rekao? What did you say?

In colloquial speech, šta may merge with prepositions to form combinations such as zašta for what, o čemu about what, or sa čim with what.

O čemu pričaš? What are you talking about?
Sa čim jedeš hleb? What do you eat bread with?

“Gde” – Where

Gde asks about location or direction and can mean where, to where, or at which place, depending on the verb.

Gde živiš? Where do you live?
Gde ideš? Where are you going?
Gde si bio? Where were you?

In some dialects, especially in the west, you might hear kud(a) for where to, or odakle for from where:
Kuda ideš? Where are you heading?
Odakle si? Where are you from?

“Kada” – When

Kada asks about time.

Kada dolaziš? When are you coming?
Kada počinje film? When does the movie start?
Kada si završio školu? When did you finish school?

You can also use dokle to ask until when, or otkad / od kada to mean since when.

Dokle ćeš čekati? Until when will you wait?
Otkad učiš srpski? Since when have you been studying Serbian?

“Zašto” – Why

Zašto is used to ask for reasons or motives.

Zašto si tužan? Why are you sad?
Zašto ne radiš? Why aren’t you working?
Zašto kasniš? Why are you late?

A more formal or emotional version is zbog čega, literally because of what.

Zbog čega plačeš? Why are you crying?

“Kako” – How

Kako asks about manner, method, or state.

Kako si? How are you?
Kako radi ovaj uređaj? How does this device work?
Kako si došao ovde? How did you get here?

It can also form idiomatic expressions:
Kako to misliš? What do you mean?
Kako da ne! Of course! (literally How not!)

“Koji” – Which

Koji asks for selection or identification among options and agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun it refers to.

Koju knjigu čitaš? Which book are you reading?
Koji film gledaš? Which movie are you watching?
Koje boje voliš? Which colors do you like?

“Čiji” – Whose

Čiji expresses possession. It also agrees in gender and number with the noun it modifies.

Čiji je ovo auto? Whose car is this?
Čija je torba? Whose bag is it?
Čiji su ključevi? Whose keys are these?

“Koliko” – How Much / How Many

Koliko asks about quantity or degree and can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.

Koliko imaš godina? How old are you? (literally How many years do you have?)
Koliko košta ovo? How much does this cost?
Koliko vremena imaš? How much time do you have?

It can also appear with other words to express comparison:
Koliko dugo? How long?
Koliko često? How often?

Question Word + “da” Clauses

In Serbian, question words can also be used with da to introduce indirect questions—when reporting or wondering about something without directly asking it.

Ne znam gde je. I don’t know where he is.
Pitaj ga kada dolazi. Ask him when he’s coming.
Rekla mi je zašto kasni. She told me why she’s late.

The da is not needed in these cases because the question word already connects the subordinate clause to the main one.

Word Order in Questions

Serbian has flexible word order, but questions generally place the verb early in the sentence, especially when li is used. Clitics (such as sam, si, se, ga, mu, mi, ti) always appear in the second position of the clause.

Da li si ga video? Did you see him?
Gde si bio? Where were you?
Zašto se plašiš? Why are you afraid?

Even when the question word begins the sentence, the clitic immediately follows it:
Šta si rekao? What did you say?
Kada ste došli? When did you come?
Ko ti je to rekao? Who told you that?

This fixed clitic position is one of the most distinctive features of Serbian question structure.

Indirect Questions

Indirect questions appear inside larger sentences, often after verbs like pitati to ask, znati to know, videti to see, čuti to hear, or razumeti to understand.

Pitam se da li će doći. I wonder if he will come.
Ne znam ko je to rekao. I don’t know who said that.
Rekla mi je gde živi. She told me where she lives.

Unlike in English, indirect questions in Serbian do not use inversion; they follow the same structure as statements.

Polite Questions

To sound polite or formal, Serbian often uses modal verbs such as moći, želeti, or hteti, combined with da and a main verb.

Možete li mi pomoći? Can you help me?
Da li biste želeli kafu? Would you like coffee?
Mogu li da uđem? May I come in?

The combination biste mogli (could you) or biste želeli (would you like) is particularly polite and common in service situations or formal speech.

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